THIKA SCHOOL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE MODULE

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COURSE OBJECTIVE

 To understand the principle of psychology, anthropology and medical

sociology
 To explain factors influencing personality of an individual
 To explain factors affecting the health of the society
 To explain how cultural beliefs and practices affect the health of the
community.
 COURSE OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
SUBTOPIC
 Definition of terms
 Types of behaviors
 Determinants of behavior
 Branches of psychology
 Importance of studying psychology
OBJECTIVE
 Explain types of behaviors
 Discuss the determinant of behaviors
 Explain the branches of psychology
 Explain importance of studying psychology
2. PERSONALITY
SUBTOPIC
 Concept of personality
 Theories of personality
 Social and psychosocial development
 Management of psychological problems and behaviors disorder
OBJECTIVES
  Explain the concept of personality
 Discuss the theories of personality
 Discuss psychosocial development
 Discuss the management of psychological problems and behaviors disorders

3. LEARNING
SUB-TOPIC
 Definition of terms
 Characteristic of learning
 Principles of learning
 Memory
 Types of memory
 Theories of learning
OBJECTIVES
 Explain the characteristic of learning
 Discuss the principles of learning
 Understand how the memory work
 Explain the reasons for forgetting
 Discuss the types of memory
 Discuss the theories of learning

4. ANTHROLPOLOGY
 Concept of culture
 Concept of anthropology
 Relationship between culture beliefs and health
OBJECTIVES
 Explain the concept of culture
 Explain the concept of anthropology
 Discuss the relationship between the cultural beliefs and health

5. MEDICAL SOCIOLOGY
  Definition of terms
 Domains of health
 Ways to stay healthy
 Relationship between social economic factor and health
OBJECTIVES
 Explain the domains of health
 Discuss how to stay healthy
 Discuss the relationship between social economic factors and health

BEHAVIROL SCIENCE

TOPIC 1
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

SUBTOPIC
 Definition of terms
 Types of behaviors
 Determinants of behavior
 Branches of psychology
 Importance of studying psychology
OBJECTIVE
 Explain types of behaviors
 Discuss the determinant of behaviors
 Explain the branches of psychology
 Explain importance of studying psychology

DEFINATION OF TERMS

BEHAVIROL SCIENCE
 Behavioral science is concerned with the study of human and animal behavior. Scientists
in this field look at individuals and their behavior along with the behavior of societies,
groups, and cultures, as well as processes that can contribute to specific behaviors.
 There is a great deal of overlap between this field and the social sciences, which can
sometimes lead to confusion.
 The social sciences tend to focus more on structural systems and cultures, while
behavioral science tends to look at the reactions within and between organisms that
dictate behavioral trends.

PSYCHOLOGY

 It is the study of man behavior and experiences

 Study of human behavior in terms of response to any and every kind of situation that life
presents

 Study of human /mind

Characteristics of human behavior

1. Need –it is the original source of behavior it occurs whenever anything is lacking
/deficiency of an individual; it consists of 2 types of needs
 Physiological needs- some organic deficiency in the body such as lack of water
,sugar ,food
 Derived needs-refers to the psychological deficit e.g. lack of affection security
prestige need gives an individual tension preparing them to act
2. Drive –this is an aroused state that occur because of the need the state of drive leads to a
movement called response
3. Response- these are organism reaction to environment to satisfy to need
4. Motive-these are intentions to do something they are directions towards a certain goal

Branches of psychology

Psychology- it explores the process of mental physical growth in human from prenatal period
through childhood to old age

Study the changes in behaviors’, perception cognitive of organisms due to age and experience

1. Physiological /psycho-biological psychology

It investigates the efforts of organic process phenomena and behavior in the role of biochemical
events within our nervous system and bodies in everything we do sense feel or taste

2. Experimental psychology

It looks into such basic psychological process e.g. learning memory sensation perception
cognition motivation and emotion

3. Personality psychology
It attempts to categories and understand the causes of individual differences in behaviors’ e.g.
anxiety self-esteem need for achievement and aggressiveness

4. Clinical and counseling psychology

Clinical psychology focuses on the diagnosis causes and RX of psychological disorder

Counseling psychology helps people to cope with the normal problems that do not involve
psychological disorder e.g. choosing a career dealing with martial difficulties e.t.c

5. Social psychology

The study of all aspects of social behavior and social thoughts i.e. how we think and interact with
each other

6. Industrial and organizational psychology

It addresses the issues e.g. training personnel improving the working conditions screening of
application for specialized jobs

7. Education psychology

It’s the study of all objects of the education process from techniques of instruments to learning
disabilities

Importance of psychology

1. Enables us to understand the social systems in the society i.e. social institutions
2. Enables us to understand changes of behaviors of the people within the society
3. To promote conformity of behaviors in the society
4. To acknowledge and understand the societal norms attitudes and cultural values
5. To understand the development of personality traits

THEORETICAL APPROACH S OF BEHAVIOURS

A. PSCHO-ANALYTICAL THEORY
  Behaviors are largely determined by unconscious forces.
 The individual is in conflict due to opposing demands i.e id, ego and the
superego.
 All the three usually conflict on who should control the behaviors.
B. BEHAVIOURIST 9SKINNER APPROACH)
 Human behaviors are shaped by environment factors.
 Most behaviors are learnt
C. HUMANISTIC APPROACH
 Human beings are unique, good-hearted, free, and rational and self determined.
D. BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
 Genetic, physiological and biological factors and processes determine our
behaviors.
E. COGNITIVE APPROACH
 Human brain/ mind can be compared to a computer.
 Human are information processers.
 They can differentiate between what is good and what is bad.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Discuss the methods of studying behaviors
TOPIC 2
PERSONALITY
SUBTOPIC
 Concept of personality
 Theories of personality
 Social and psychosocial development
 Management of psychological problems and behaviors disorder
OBJECTIVES
 Explain the concept of personality
 Discuss the theories of personality
 Discuss psychosocial development
 Discuss the management of psychological problems and behaviors disorders

DEFINATION OF TERM

PERSONALITY

 Unique, relative consistence pattern of thinking and behavior

 These are stable distinctive characteristic of a person such as the way they think,
emotions and behaviors that an individual responds to and adopt different circumstance.

CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY

a)person

 It is an individual with human nature

 It is an individual substances of rational nature

b)Temperament

 It is a set of decomposition and inclination arising from the person biochemical

composition which is utilized as human grows and develops towards maturity in
accordance with intelligence and the will of a person.
c) Personality Traits

 It is an element or distinguishing characteristics of a person such as generosity, honest,

rudeness etc.

d) Character

 It is a combination of traits and qualities distinguishing the individual nature of a person

 It also refers to acquired decomposition that influences conduct.

Importance of studying personality

 To understand one self and potentials and strength

 Improve communication and interaction

 Enable us assign duties and responsibility

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

PSYCHO-SEXUAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY (FREUDS)

PSYCHO ANALYTICAL THEORY

ANAL STAGE (1-3 YEARS)

Focus on stimulation is the anus. Pleasure is obtained from expelling or retaining fecal material.
Toilet training is central activity. Children must endure the demands of toilet training given
usually by parents. Children who find their parent’ demand for toilet training difficult show
resistance. The emotional climate parents create during toilet training can leave a mark on ones
personality that is fixation results if toilet training is either too strict or too lenient. If toilet
training is too lenient fixation results into the development of anal expulsive character i.e. they
become wasteful, irresponsible, disorderly, messy, disorganized, careless, dirty and rebellious.
On the other hand, if toilet training was too strict fixation results into a development of an anal-
retentive character. This is characterized by behavior patterns such as being so neat, orderly,
systematic, and careful organized, clean and obedient.
PHALLIC STAGE (3-6 YEARS)

Focuses of stimulation are the genitals i.e. children at his stage frequently observe their genitals
and ask questions about birth and sex. Children derive pleasure from stroking and fondling their
genitals. They become aware of the anatomical differences in males and females.

Young children feel a sexual desire for the parent of the opposite sex. Freud called the situation
Oedipus complex in boys and Electra complex in girls. The boys fear their fathers as the
dominant rivals and this fear becomes castration anxiety i.e. the boy develop the fear of losing
his sexual organs.

On the other hand the young girl discovers that her sexual organs differ from those of boys i.e.
do not posses a penis (superior organs). This develops in what Freud termed as penis envy. Penis
envy is the counter part of castration anxiety.

LATENCY AGE (6-12 YEARS)

It is characterized by the apparent absence of sexual feelings and interests. Children suppress
their psychosexual interests. They enter a latent period and available sexual energy is channeled
in socially acceptable activities i.e. sexual energies are redirected into socially useful physical
and intellectual activities,

Children at this age play and interact mostly with peers of the same sex, make friends, develop
self-confidence and learn social rules for appropriate male and female behavior. According to
Freud no one becomes fixated at this stage.

GENITAL STAGE (12 YEARS ONWARDS)

The genital are focus of stimulation. Puberty and adolescents conceit. It marks the beginning of
mature sexual relationships. People or individual settle into the tasks of establishing mature
relationships that may last throughout the adult years. However, adolescents face conflicts in
learning how to manage these new sexual urges in socially acceptable ways.

Throughout adolescence and young adulthood energy is invested in such activities as forming
friendship, preparing for a career, courting and getting married. Freud theory was criticized by
Alan Katcher (1955). He found that the majority of 4-5 years old are unable to assemble doll so
that genitals match with other parts of the body.

PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

WHAT IS COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT?

Cognitive development is the development of thinking and reasoning. It involves construction of

new mental processes as children interact within the environment. Piaget is the most influential
psychologist on cognitive development. A child’s cognitive development consists of the
acquisition of cognitive structures called schemes that are used for understanding and dealing
with the environment.

Cognitive development takes place through adaptation i.e. the ways that organism or the
individual is able to cope with the demands of the immediate environment. Adaptation takes
place through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. As children mature they acquire
more complex cognitive structure that enables them to adapt their new environments.

Assimilation refers to the process by which children interpret and understand new experiences by
incorporating them into their existing schemes e.g. an infant may suck an unfamiliar object.
Accommodation refers to the process by which children modify their existing cognitive schemes
in order to adapt to new experiences e.g. an infant may suck the mother’s breast but modifies the
sucking reflex in order to be able to suck a feeding bottle or he/she may modify the grasp
response to accommodate the size and shape of a new toy.

Infants shift back and forth from assimilation to accommodation. The cognitive theory views
thinking as a conscious process. It places major emphasis on development stages that are tied to
maturation.

PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Each stage is characterized by a qualitatively different organization of cognitive structures of

schemes

1. SENSORIMOTOR (birth-2years)
 Young children acquire understanding through sensory impressions and motor activities
i.e. infants experience the world through their senses. Behaviors consist of simple motor
responses to sensory stimuli e.g. sucking, reaching, grasping and lifting to mention a few.
Children’s cognitive abilities are dominated by reflexive responses/actions. Circular
reaction emerges in the cognitive capacities of infants. Infants lack concept of object
permanence and symbolic representation. Objectives exist for the infant only when they
are present. There is little use of language. Children gain some concept of self i.e. if a
mirror is put in front of them they can recognize themselves in the mirror. What lacks in
this stage must feature in the next stage

2. PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (2-7 YEARS)

 There is rapid use of language because most infants have developed the language
ability.
 Children cognitive abilities are developed e.g. they manifest the concept of object
permanence.
 Children’s cognitive abilities are highly symbolic e.g. a doll can represent a baby
or a toy car represents a car. In general children use symbols to represent real life
objects.
 Cognitive abilities are characterized by transductive thinking in which a particular
object in their experience is expected to be seen elsewhere.
 Children’s thinking is erratic and uneven (not rational). Their thinking is ego-
centric e.g. the tendency to perceive, interpret and understand the environment
from their own point of view only. They do not consider the perspective of others
and the child sees the world as centered around himself/herself.
 They manifest the concept of concentration i.e. the tendency to focus on only one
dimension or characteristic of a stimulus and ignore other dimensions e.g. other
characteristics of the object.
 Children lack the concept of conversation i.e. a given quantity matter remains the
same in terms of numbers, mass, area, weight and volume as long as nothing has
been added or taken away. E.g. a bundle of 10 pencils and three bundles of 4, 3, 3
pencils they will tell you the three bundles are more.
  They lack the concept of reversibility i.e. they cannot retrieve (earlier experience
or cannot link different states backwards) e.g. ice which was originally water and
solidifies can turn into water again, 2-1+1=2 or 2+1=3.
 They also lack the concept of spatial operations i.e. the ability to see the
relationship between moving and stationary objects within their environment
(motion parallax)
 Show animistic thinking i.e. believe that inanimate objects have life e.g. they
believe non-living objects such as dolls, toys, the sun etc are alive, have feelings
and intentions

3. CONCRETE OPERATION (7-12 YEARS)

A major turning point in the quality of cognitive manifestation i.e. it is closely similar to
adults’ thinking. Children develop the following aspects. Serialization the ability to count
numbers, arrange objects in order of size, height and weight. Classification of objects in
their categories of respective:- color, size and shape.
 Conservation: the ability to identify the relationship between different features of
one situation in terms of weight, height and color.
 Reversibility: ability to retrieve earlier experiences
 Cognitive deception: the tendency to have too much faith in his/her reasoning and
what they think.
 Compensation: a change in one stimulus is balanced by a change in another e.g.
change in temperature means change in dressing
 Spatial operations: the ability of the organism to see the relationship between
moving objects e.g. vehicles move and not trees. One major weakness at this stage
is that children cannot reason logically and systematically about abstract issues or
concepts.

4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL
 Dominated by qualitative improvement in cognitive and reasoning. The major
characteristics include abstract issues or concepts.
  Hypothetical deductive reasoning is well established and an individual can
generate a hypothesis and respond to it.
 Systematic problem solving is also well established i.e. individuals develop
strategies and plan actions in advance
 Assimilation and accommodation are now well established in a human being.
 People develop cognitive abilities that enable solve difficult problems by means
of abstract reasoning.
 During this cognitive stage adolescents experience formal operational
egocentrism i.e. the inability to distinguish the abstract perspective of self and
others.
 Two distorted images of self and others appear. These include the imaginary
audience and personal fable. In the case of imaginary audience young teenagers
regard themselves as always on stage. They are convinced that they are the focus
of every one else’s attention and concern. As a result, they become extremely
self-conscious
 A second cognitive distortion is the personal fable i.e. teenagers develop an
inflated opinion of their own importance. They start to feel that they are special
and unique
 Imaginary audience and personal fable gradually decline over adolescent years.

ERIK ERIKSSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHO-SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

(1902-1994)

Emphasized socio-cultural determinants of personality in his theory of psychosocial development

stages play a central role in Erikson’s theory. However, social experience is strongly emphasized
than maturation. The theory sees the child as an active participant in his/her development. He
assumed that development occurs in stages and that the child must successfully resolve some
crisis or conflict at each stage in order to be prepared for other crises that emerge later in life.

Erikson stressed that children are active, adaptive explorers’ creatures who are not slaves to their
biological urges and are modeled by their parents. He believed that a child must first understand
the realities of the social world in order to adapt successfully and show a normal pattern of
personal growth. Erikson assumed that human beings are rational creatures whose feelings,
thoughts and actions are controlled by the Ego. He believed that human beings face major crises
or conflicts has its own time for developing as dictated by both biological maturation and the
social demands that developing people experience at particular point in life. The 8 stages and
crises include:

1. Trust Vs Mistrust (Birth – 1yr)

This is Erikson’s first stage of psychological development it corresponds to infancy and
Freud’s oral stage of psychosexual development. Because infants are extremely helpless
and dependent on caregivers, they come to trust their parents and others who care for
them adequately. Responsive maternal care while feeding the infant basic needs enables
them to develop a sense of trust or confidence. Infants who are given adequate care, view
people as predictable, good, dependable, reliable and gratifying. They also view the
world as a good place to live in. however, if caregivers are rejecting, harsh and
inconsistent, make infants wait for long for comfort, infants develop a sense of mistrust.
They may view the world as a dangerous place to live in. the mother or other primary
caregivers are the key social agents.

2. Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt (1-3 yrs)

This is Erikson’s 2nd stage of psychosocial development and corresponds to Freud’s anal
stage of psychosexual development. During this stage children achieve muscular control
and motor skills as walking, climbing and manipulating objects. A child must also learn
to what degree he/she can take pride in his/her own body and in the ability to decide how
to use it and to what degree he/she will experience shame and doubt about the choices
made. In addition children make errors of both control and judgment during toilet
training. A child who is treated with respect for his/her failures and successes will
eventually develop a sense of autonomy i.e. Autonomy is achieved when parents offer
guide opportunities and the kind of choices children take with their bodies.
But if a child is consistently humiliated, shamed and embarrassed or restricted and
forced, he/she nay develop a sense of shame and doubt (an inadequate doubting sense of
autonomy). Thus children must learn to be autonomous e.g. to feed, dress themselves and
 to look after their own hygiene. Failure to achieve this independence may force the child
to doubt his/her own abilities. Parents are key social agents.

3. Initiative Vs Guilt (3-6 yrs)

This is the stage of activity and curiosity. The ability to participate in many physical
activities together with the ability to communicate through language sets the development
of the sense of initiative corresponds to Freud’s phallic stage of psychosexual
development. Children also learn about the roles and the institutions of society and gain
an insight into what kind of a person they can become.
Initiative involves a sense of ambition and social responsibility that develops when
parents support their child’s developing sense of purpose and direction. The danger of
this stage is that parental demands for self control may lead to over control and result in a
sense of guilt i.e. children may undertake goals or activities that conflict with those of the
parents and family members which will make them feel guilty.
However, a child must develop a sense of initiative and yet learn not to impinge
(encroach) on the rights, privileges and goals of others. Family members are the key
social agents.

4. Industry Vs Inferiority (6-12 yrs)

This is the school age during which the child develops industrious capacity for productive
work, cooperation with others and takes pride in doing things well. This stage
corresponds to Freud’s latency stage of psychosexual development.
Children leave the protection of their families and enter the world of school in which they
learn to master a new set of challenges. They also learn basic intellectual and social skills
required in the modern society. Children who master important social and academic skills
develop a sense of industry.
Inferiority is the sense that one will never be good at anything develops when children’s
experiences at school in the peer gap and with parents do not foster feelings of
competence and mastery i.e. such children feel that they cannot learn to complete tasks,
that their efforts are blocked and they feel they are worthless.
 Therefore, failure to acquire important intellectual/academic and social skills leads to
feeling of inferiority, significant and social agents are teachers and peers.

5. Identity Vs Role Confusion (12-20yrs)

This is a culminating stage that marks the transition between childhood, adolescence and
adulthood. It comes in adolescence. Teenagers or adolescents undergo a re-evaluation of
who they are in many areas of development including physical, intellectual and social
development. They are more concerned with what they appear to be in the ‘eyes’ of
others than what they feel they are.
Past and present experiences along with expectations for the future are brought together
into a coherent sense of which one is and ones place in their society. Adolescents who
establish basic social occupational identities develop a sense of identity. However, those
who remain confused about the roles they should play as adults or remain confused about
one’s sexual, physical and social self-definition, develop a sense of role confusion.
Teachers, peers and parents are the key social agents

6. Intimacy Vs Isolation (20-40 years)

This is experienced in young adulthood. Once a sense of personal identity is achieved,
young people turn towards the task of establishing meaningful intimate relationships with
other people. Intimate relationships are established with peers and adult people regardless
of their sex. The primary task at this stage is to form strong relationships to achieve a
sense of love and companionship.
Young adults who establish intimate relationships with other people develop a sense of
intimacy. However, young adults who experience negative outcomes at this stage i.e. they
are unable to establish intimate relationships experience isolation and cannot risk the
possibility of rejection. Such young adults develop a sense of isolation and are likely to
remain isolated from others. Key social agents are lovers, spouses and close friends.

7. Generatively Vs Stagnations (40-65yrs)

This occurs during middle adulthood. At this stage, adults face the tasks of becoming
productive in their work, raising their families and looking after the needs of young
 people. This task is accomplished through child-rearing and caring for other people.
Adults who accomplish the task of child rearing develop a sense of generativity. The
standards of generating are defined by one’s culture. However people who fail to
contribute to the task of child rearing are unable or unwilling to assume such
responsibilities develop a sense of stagnation. Significant social agents include spouses,
children and cultural norms.

8. Integrity Vs Despair (65 yrs onwards)

This occurs during the old age. Its Erikson’s last stage of Psychosocial Development, the
old individual looks back at life, viewing it as either meaningful, productive and a happy
experience or a major disappointment full of unfulfilled promises and unrealized goals.
Old individuals look back on the kind of person they have been and what they have
accomplished over their course of life. Old individuals who view life as a worthy
experience, meaningful and productive, full of filled promises develop a sense of
integrity and to them death is not threatening.
However, old people who are dissatisfied with their life course and view life as unhappy
experience, unproductive and a major disappointment, full of unfilled promises and
unrealized goals, develops a sense of despair. To such individuals, life is too short to
correct its shortcomings and death is threatening. One’s life experiences, particularly
social experience will determine the outcome of this final life crisis.

FACTORS INFLUENCING PERSONALTY

A) GENETIC FACTORS
 They are also considered as hereditary factors which have influence on our
physical characteristic.
 Hereditary factors provided the potential which are spread and mediated by
environmental factors. Thus hereditary factors originate from our biological
parent.

B) ENVIROMENTAL FACTORS
 They influence our personality depending with our different experiences.
  Good environmental factors promote and enhance development of personality
potential while poor environmental factors tend to hinder or suppress
realization of this potential.
C) PHYSICAL FACTOR
 Different factors tend to influence our behaviors directly or indirectly based
on various factors. They include
I) APPEARANCE
II) BODY STRUCTURE:
III) PHYSICAL DEFECT
IV) SEX
V) HEALTH STATUS
D) EMOTIONAL FACTORS
 Children who are deprived love and affection are likely to lack trust on other
people and become withdrawn or strong attention seekers.
 They are also likely to be selfish, self controlled and lack initiative
 Children who have access to love and affection tend to be emotionally stable,
social, friendly and happy.
E) SOCIAL FACTORS
 These are based on socialization of the child or individual with a parent family
member, schools or peers.
 Children acquire personality through teaching or training, modeling,
interaction and reinforcement of good behavior.

F) CULTURAL FACTORS
 Society knowledge, beliefs, skills, customs and norms contribute to shaping
one child personality.
 They learn through observation, modeling, instruction or daily participation.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Define abnormal behaviors
 2. Discuss causes of abnormal behaviors
3. Explain different types of abnormal behaviors

TOPIC 3
LEARNING
SUB-TOPIC
 Definition of terms
 Characteristic of learning
 Principles of learning
 Memory
 Types of memory
 Theories of learning
OBJECTIVES
 To explain the characteristic of learning
 To discuss the principles of learning
 To understand how the memory work
 To explain the reasons for forgetting
 To discuss the types of memory
 To discuss the theories of learning

DEFINATION
 This is permanent change in knowledge or behaviors through experiences.
 It is a process of acquiring new knowledge, attributes values and skills

CHARCTERISTIC OF LEARNING
 A) It involves change of behaviors such as individuals should be able to do what they were
not able to do before.

B) It is a continuous process:-we learn something new every day and learning takes place all
the times. This can be either formal or informal.

C) Learning should be transferable:- what has be learnt last should lead to what will be learn
next.

D) Not all types of learning that are directly observable that is sometimes it may involve
mental process such as thinking, reasoning and creativity.

E) Leaning should result to relatively permanent change. The changes that take place
through learning should not be temporary.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

A) READINESS:-this involves mentally, physically and socially

B) PRACTICE:-the more we practice the more we become perfect.

C) MEANINGFULNESS:- We maintain what is of significant and important to us

D) KNOWN TO UNKNOWN:-We start with what we are familiar with then to what is not
familiar.

E) STEP BY STEP:-We start from simple, shorter to complex steps

MEMORY

 It can be defined as ability to recognize, recall, or forget a given information.

 Memory can be divided into three

A) Sensory Memory
  This is information that is registered in the sensory organ such as the eyes,
nose, tongue, skin etc.

 The information is selected and if it is of importance it is taken to a short

term memory.

 In case it is not important it can be stored for few seconds then we forget
about it.

B) Short Term Memory

 This is where information is stored for quite a longer period and awareness
of meaning is created.

 Incase of importance it is transferred to a long term memory.

C) Long Term Memory

 It contains a vast of information which may have our childhood memory

or any other memory of importance to us.

REASONS FOR FORGETTING

A) Interference(retroactive interference-new materials increasing and forgetting old

materials, Pro-active-old materials increasing forgetting new materials.)

B) Decay- Over a period

Learning

This is a permanent change I knowledge or behavior resisting them experience. Learning is also
defined as a process of acquiring new knowledge skills attributes and values

Characteristics of learning

It occurs through practice

Learning is repeatedly rehearsal to make more perfect i.e practice makes perfect it involves:
  It involves change of behavior
 It is a continuous process
 Learning should be transferable
 Not all types of learning that are directly observable
 Learning should result to relatively permanent change

Principles of learning

1. Readiness

This holds that individual’s learn a lot when they are ready to learn this involves being ready
mentally physically and emotionally in a situation where one is not ready it may influence his
/her rate or level of learning

2. Practice

We get into a better state when we repeat what we have learnt the more often one is able to do
what they have learnt the more better they become in doing it

The more favorable form of practice is distributed as compared to the practice that occurs after
along during the better the performance

3. Meaningfulness

We learn best and maintain what is important and of some significant to us in some ways if what
we learnt is meaningful it makes so satisfied and we are able to retain it

4. Known to unknown

Learning occur best from known to unknown we learn about the current and what is familiar
therefore having a better understanding

5. Step by step

Learning should be done step by step starting from the simple shorter steps or more complex
steps
MEMORY

Memory can be defined as ability to recognize recall or forget a given date

Memory can be divided into 3:

1. Sensory memory

This is the information that is registered in the sensory organ such as the eyes nose tongue skin
the information is selected and if its of importance it is taken short term memory if it is not of
any importance

It can be stored for 5 seconds

2. Short term memory

This is where information is stored for a quite a longer period and awareness of meaning is
created in case it is importance it is transferred to the long term memory

3. Long term memory

It contain past information which may have our childhood memories or any other memories
which are of importance to us

Reasons for forgetting

1. Interference

 Retro-active interference
 Pro-active interference

2. Decay i.e. over a period of time you are likely tof forget something or an event

3. Lack of retrieval clue

4. Lack of attention

The question arises that how do people forget and record information this is because of the
following
 a. Old materials increasing forgetting new materials(pro- active interference)
b. New materials increasing forgetting old materials(retro-active interference)
c. People remember meaningful things or materials than nonsense
d. People remember distinctive or unusual materials

Our ability to remember of our memory works as follows

i. Through recalling
ii. Significance hint
iii. Re-learning method of practice

LEARNING THEORIES

1. Observation theory (bandula)

Most of our behaviors are acquired through observation imaging them and later imitating. Even
as adult we are sometime influenced by others. We tend to choose the people we admire as our
models and then we substitute our own experiences with others in other words we like to look
like them. If we imitate bad behaviors this is likely to be negative learning. If we imitate good
behaviors this is taken to be positive learning. Sometimes we even want to be better than our
models usually referred to as self efficacy

2. Operant theory (instrumental conditioning)

When a particular action has a good consequence that actions tend to be repeated and vice versa.
Instrumental conditioning is about rewarding good behaviors either increases or decreases
whether the action will be repeated again or not this is done through a process known as
reinforcement. Reinforcement can be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement can be referred
to as provision of rewards in order to increase positive behaviors. Negative reinforcement can be
refereed to as removal of the unpleasant situation or painful situation in order to increase positive
behaviors. Punishments are also used to reduce negative behavior in individual. Instrumental
conditioning is highly used in school however punishments are discouraged since they can be
used as an abuse sometimes. Instrumental condition is also to train the animals
3. Classical conditioning

It’s a process by which organisms learn more association between the impaired stimuli. It’s also
a condition that predicts an event with person’s significance that has occurred. Most of our
behaviors’ are acquired through this i.e. if you are angry and you smell tasty food your mouth is
likely to salivate. The author of classical conditioning was Evan Pavlov he carried out an
experiments on digestive process of animals i.e. the dogs he noticed that whenever he could
bring food to feed them together with the bell the dog would salivate. At the beginning he would
present food at a specific period of time consistently and the dog would salivate after introducing
the bell he would ring the bell and then produce food. When the bell rang he noticed that the dog
would salivate he later concluded that the dog had learnt the behavior

FOOD + BELL SALIVATION

Unconditional Neutral unconditional

Stimuli Stimuli Response

 Unconditional stimuli is an event that leads to unconditional response

 Classical conditioning is not necessarily a permanent behavior

 The behavior can be distinguished through a process called extinction

BELL SALIVATION

Neutral stimuli Unconditional stimuli

BELL extinction SALIVATION (less or no)

(Neutral Stimuli) (Conditional Responses)

However extinction is not given a permanent period since presentation of conditioning stimuli
would lead to the condition response

The process at which the behavior reoccurs again is referred to s simultaneous recovery

BELL + FOOD simultaneous recovery SALIVATION

(Neutral Stimuli) (Unconditional Stimuli) (Conditional Response)

Classical conditioning can be used to modify or change certain people behavior i.e. bed wetting
drug addict’s people with sexual problems people who suffer from phobia (unrealistic fear)

TOPIC 4
ANTHROLPOLOGY
 Concept of culture
 Concept of anthropology
 Relationship between culture beliefs and health
OBJECTIVES
 Explain the concept of culture
 Explain the concept of anthropology
 Discuss the relationship between the cultural beliefs and health

ANTHROPOLOGY:- It is the study of man and culture

CULTURE: These are beliefs and customs of a particular society which are passed from one
generation to another.

THE SEVEN ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

 Creates social structure by organizing its members into small units to meet basic needs.
 Family Patterns: family is the most important unit of social organization. Through the
family children learn how they are expected to act and what to believe.
 Nuclear family: wife, husband, children. This is a typical family in an industrial society
 Extended family: Several generations living in one household, working and living
together: grandparents, aunts and uncles, cousins. Respect for elders is strong.
 Social classes: rank people in order of status, depending on what is important to the
culture (money, job, education, ancestry, etc.)
CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS
 Rules of Behavior are enforced ideas of right and wrong. They can be customs, traditions,
rules, or written laws.
RELIGION
 Answers basic questions about the meaning of life.
 Supports values that groups of people feel are important.
 Religion is often a source of conflict between cultures.
 Monotheism is a belief in one god.
 Polytheism is a belief in many gods.
 Atheism is a belief in no gods.

LANGUAGE

 Language is the cornerstone of culture.

 All cultures have a spoken language (even if there are no developed forms of writing).
 People who speak the same language often share the same culture.
 Many societies include a large number of people who speak different languages.
 Each language can have several different dialects.
ARTS AND LITERATURE
  They are the products of the human imagination.
 They help us pass on the culture’s basic beliefs.
 Examples: art, music, literature, and folk tales
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT

 People form governments to provide for their common needs, keep order within society,
and protect their society from outside threats.
 Definition of government: 1. Person/people who hold power in a society; 2 Society’s
o laws and political institutions.
 Democracy: people have supreme power, government acts by and with consent.
 Republic: people choose leaders who represent them.
 Dictatorship: ruler/group holds power by force usually relying on military support for
power.
ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

 How people use limited resources to satisfy their wants and needs.
 Answers the basic questions: what to produce, how to produce it, and for whom.
 Traditional Economy: people produce most of what they need to survive (hunting,
gathering, farming, herding cattle, make own clothes/tools).
 Market Economy: buying and selling goods and services
 Command Economy: Government controls what/how goods are produced and what they
cost. Individuals have little economic power
 Mixed Economy: Individuals make some economic decisions and the government makes
others.

ASSIGNMENT:-
1. Discuss the branches of anthropology
2. Discuss the importance of studying anthropology
TOPIC 5
MEDICAL SOCIOLOGY
  Definition of terms
 Domains of health
 Ways to stay healthy
 Relationship between social economic factor and health
OBJECTIVES
 Explain the domains of health
 Discuss how to stay healthy
 Discuss the relationship between social economic factors and health

MEDICAL SOCIOLOGY

It a scientific study health illness related to the behavior

It deals with the ways in which people behavior can enhance health prevent illness and how
behaviors contribute to the recovery from illness

Aims of health psychology

1. Evaluate role of behavior incase of illness

2. Predict a healthy behavior
3. Understand role of psychology in treatment
4. Promote health behaviors

Domains of health

1. Behavioral medicine

It has a special interest in behavior and behavioral change. Its activity functions are part of
medical practice the domains also integrate behavior and medical knowledge relevant to health
and diseases prevention

2. Medical sociology

It’s a specialized field used to describe health sociology. Its principle area of interest is medical
problems and disorders. It focuses mainly on psychologists working within the domain who can
play the role to control medical disorders and problems
3. Healthcare psychology

Specialized concern with healthcare delivery i.e. how healthcare services are organized prepared
enhance the concept of healthcare delivery are broad and involve more than one treatment of
illness it includes programme of health maintenance

 Prevention of infection disease detention of health effects

 Reduction of severity of chronic illness
 Education of positive health practices

4. Public health psychology

Emphasize application of public health concepts to the field of public health. It’s intended to
alert and provide health awareness to all the people in the community and public setting its
geared towards improving and enhancing people general health

5. Rehabilitation psychology

Emphasize on rehabilitation of people health in terms of social and psychological perspective

.the focus is to the people experiencing health related problems alcoholism suicidal case

All of the above domains explain the role of psychologists and their contributions to the field of
health maintenance disease maintenance and health service delivery

HOW TO STAY HEALTHY

A number of psychological factors which can contribute to an individual success or failure on

efforts to adopt and maintain health are examined. Emphasis is given to preventive behavior.

1. PRIMARY PREVENTION
It embraces approaches that aim to prevent illness or disease infection before it occurs.
This is a term that ahs gained popularity in recent years. It refers to all activities that are
undertaken by apparently disease free individuals with the intent of helping them achieve
maximum well-being (good health) and avoid disease. Primary prevention includes
health promotion and disease prevention activities. It is broad and many activities are
involved and these include:
 a) Use of automobile safety belts and road safety in general.
b) Immunization
c) Safer sex
d) Nutrition and diet
e) Obesity and weight control
f) Exercises (aerobic exercises)

WAYS TO SAFEGUARD YOUR HEALTH

Many people today must struggle to keep clean especially in areas where safe water and
adequate sanitation are scarce. It is estimated that germs that enter the mouths/bodies through
dirty hands or contaminated food or water cause more than half of illnesses and death among
young children.

Many illnesses like diarrhea can be presented by applying the following

a) Safely dispose of excrement

b) Wash your hands
c) Wash your face everyday
d) Use only clean water
e) Protect foods from germs
f) Dispose off all household refuse.

2. SECONDARY PREVENTION
Secondary prevention plays an essential role in health promotion and disease prevention.
It is necessary once a person has developed a condition in which he/she is at risk of
further health damages. It involves taking preventive health measures to prevent potential
negative outcomes i.e. stroke in the case of hypertension (high blood pressure), if
 hypertension can lead to health damages such as stroke. These measures may involve
medications, special diet and exercise programs.

3. TERTIARY PREVENTION
It involves taking health measures specifically to cure or control the progress of a disease
e.g. the faithful taking of medication by patient with an acute infection or the co-
operation with various aspects of treatment such as radiation or surgery by the patient
who has cancer.

Tertiary prevention measures are designed to prevent further disability and hand caps e.g.
a person who has got an accident or one who needs hear or liver replacement.

Health behaviors have further been defined by Matarazzo cited in Ogden (2000) in terms
of
 Health impairing habits called ‘behavioral pathogens’ e.g. smoking. These
behaviors have a negative effect on health.
 Health protective behaviors defined as behavioral immunogens e.g. eating a
healthy diet, having regular checkups, tooth brushing; wearing seat belts etc. these
behaviors have positive effects on health.

What factors predict health behaviors?

A number of factors have been highlighted as predictors of health behaviors. These include:

 Social factors, such as learning, reinforcement, modeling and social norms

 Emotional factors, such as anxiety, stress, tension and fear.
 Perceived symptoms such as pain, fatigue etc.
 The beliefs by the patient
 The beliefs of the health professionals

A combination of these factors can be used to predict and promote health related behaviors.
ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss cultural practice that affect the health of an individual