Escape from Scientific Absurdity C22.

Newton’s Universal Gravity Explains Kepler’s Laws Spring Version 2023

C22. Newton’s Universal Gravity Explains Kepler’s Laws

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1. Find the equation of motion for the harmonic oscillator consisting of mass m and spring with
the spring constant k.
Answer: Newton’s second law of motion states that the net external force F applied to a particle
of mass m results in the acceleration ẋ.

F = mẍ.

According to Hooke’s law discovered in 1660, the restoring force is toward the point of equilib-
rium and proportional to the spring constant k as

F = −kx,

where x is the displacement of the mass from the equilibrium point at which the spring is relaxed.
As a result, the equation of motion is

mẍ = −kx → mẍ + kx = 0.

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Escape from Scientific Absurdity C22. Newton’s Universal Gravity Explains Kepler’s Laws Spring Version 2023

If we restrict ourselves to one-dimensional motion, then and the equation of motion reduces to

x = xê1 → mẍ + kx = 0.

The equation of motion for the harmonic oscillator is the most elementary differential equation.
2. What is Newton’s law of universal gravity?
Answer: The gravitational force on a planet of mass m at x = x1ê1 + x2ê2 + x3ê3 due to the
mass M of the Sun at y = y1ê1 + y2ê2 + y3ê3 is
Mm q
2 2 2
x−y
F = −G 2 êr , r ≡ |x − y| = (x1 − y1) + (x2 − y2) + (x3 − y3) , êr = ,
r |x − y|
where G ≈ 6.67 × 10−11 N·m2/kg2 is the constant of universal gravity and êr is the unit radial
vector heading from the Sun to the planet. This is an attractive force. If we apply Newton’s
third law of action and reaction, then we find that the same amount of force with the opposite
direction is applied to the Sun. This force is an action at a distance because it does not require
any contact between two particles. This force is called an inverse square law because the
strength diminishes inversely proportional to the distance squared. The gravitational force is
called a central force because F k êr is aligned to the line connecting the two particles.
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Escape from Scientific Absurdity C22. Newton’s Universal Gravity Explains Kepler’s Laws Spring Version 2023

3. Employing Newton’s third law to find that the center of mass (CM) is at rest in the CM frame.
Answer: Newton’s third law states that the force F on the planet and the force −F on the Sun
cancel:
F = mẍ, −F = M ÿ → F − F = mẍ + M ÿ = 0.
Apparently, the double time derivative of mx + M y vanishes:
d2
2
[mx + M y] = (M + m)ẌCM = 0,
dt
where the center of mass XCM is the average of the position vectors of the Sun and the planet
weighted by the masses and is defined by
mx + M y
XCM = .
m+M
In general, the velocity VCM ≡ ẊCM of the CM is invariant . According to Galilean relativity,
any inertial reference frame is equivalent in the sense that the force is invariant. We choose the
inertial reference frame in which XCM = 0. We call it the CM frame. In the CM frame,

mx + M y = 0, mẋ + M ẏ = 0, mẍ + M ÿ = 0.
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Escape from Scientific Absurdity C22. Newton’s Universal Gravity Explains Kepler’s Laws Spring Version 2023

We define the relative coordinate vector r ≡ x − y = rêr to find that

M M m m
x=+ r=+ rêr , y=− r=− rêr .
m+M m+M m+M m+M
This linear relation holds for ṙ and r̈.

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Escape from Scientific Absurdity C22. Newton’s Universal Gravity Explains Kepler’s Laws Spring Version 2023

4. Show that the total orbital angular momentum of the Sun-planet two-body system is con-
served .
Answer: The torque on the Sun and the planet are defined by x × F and y × (−F ). Both of
them vanish at the CM frame because x and y are either parallel or antiparallel to ±F . Because
the net torque vanishes, the total angular momentum L is invariant.
d
x×F −y×F =0= [x × mẋ + y × M ẏ] = L̇, L ≡ x × mẋ + y × mẏ.
dt
If we make use of the relative coordinate vector r , then L is conserved :
mM (m + M ) d mM 2 2
L= 2
(r ê r ) × (r ê r ) = r θ̇ ê r × ê θ = µr θ̇ê3,
(m + M ) dt m+M
where µ = mM/(m + M ) is called the reduced mass and we have made use of
d
(rêr ) = ṙêr + rθ̇êθ , êr × êr = 0, êr × êθ = ê1 × ê2 = ê3.
dt
Here,
∂
êr = ê1 cos θ + ê2 sin θ, êθ = êr = −ê1 sin θ + ê2 cos θ.
∂θ
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Escape from Scientific Absurdity C22. Newton’s Universal Gravity Explains Kepler’s Laws Spring Version 2023

5. Conservation of areal velocity is Kepler’s second law of planetary motion. Show that this is
explained by the conservation of the total angular momentum.
Answer: The total orbital angular momentum L is conserved:
mM
L̇ = `˙ê3 = 0, ` = µr θ̇,2
µ= .
m+M
The planetary motion can be described by r(t). If we consider the displacement from r(t) to
r(t + dt), then the differential area element dA of the sector of an angle dθ = θ̇dt is
1 2 1 2 `
dA = r dθ = r θ̇dt = dt.
2 2 2µ
The areal velocity is a conserved quantity that is independent of t because both µ and ` are
invariant:
dA `
= .
dt 2µ
Hence, Newton explained that Kepler’s second law is a consequence of the inverse square law
with the aid of Newton’s second law of motion.
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Escape from Scientific Absurdity C22. Newton’s Universal Gravity Explains Kepler’s Laws Spring Version 2023

6. Find the equation of motion for the relative coordinate vector r ≡ x − y for the Sun-planet
two-body system.
Answer: By making use of the relative coordinate vector r = rêr , we can rearrange Newton’s
equation of motion for the planet as
mM d2 mM d2 G(m + M )
F = mẍ = [rêr ] = −G 2 êr → [rêr ] + êr = 0.
m + M dt2 r dt2 r2
The Leibniz rule of the derivative of a product can be applied to find that
d2 ˙ r + rê
¨r.
[r ê r ] = r̈ ê r + 2 ṙ ê
dt2
ê˙ r and ê
¨ r can be computed by making use of the chain rule. To simplify our analysis, we restrict
êr on the xy plane to find that êr = ê1 cos θ + ê2 sin θ. Hence,
∂ ∂
êθ = êr = −ê1 sin θ + ê2 cos θ, êθ = −ê1 cos θ − ê2 sin θ = −êr .
∂θ ∂θ
∂ d h i
ê˙ r = θ̇ êr = θ̇êθ , ¨r =
ê θ̇êθ = θ̈êθ − θ̇2êr .
∂θ dt
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Escape from Scientific Absurdity C22. Newton’s Universal Gravity Explains Kepler’s Laws Spring Version 2023

d2
Then dt2 [rêr ] is decomposed into

d2 ˙ r + rê
¨ r = (r̈ − rθ̇2)êr + (rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇)êθ .
[r ê r ] = r̈ ê r + 2 ṙ ê
dt2
As a result, we can write the equation of motion as coupled differential equations:

2 G(m + M )
r̈ − rθ̇ + = 0, rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇ = 0.
r2
Here, we can make use of the total orbital angular momentum conservation L̇ = 0:

2 2 `2
L = `ê3, ` = µr θ̇ → rθ̇ = 2 3 .
µr

Replacing rθ̇2 with `2/(µ2r), we find that

`2 G(m + M )
r̈ − 2 3 + 2
= 0, `˙ = 0, ` = µr2θ̇ = constant.
µr r
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Escape from Scientific Absurdity C22. Newton’s Universal Gravity Explains Kepler’s Laws Spring Version 2023

7. By making use of the total orbital angular momentum conservation and replacing the time t with
the angle θ, reduce the radial equation for r = 1/u to the equation of the derivatives of u with
respect to θ.
Answer: Because the total orbital angular momentum is a conserved quantity, ` = µr2θ̇ is
invariant and the differential of time is correlated to the differential of the angle θ as
2 2   2 2  
2 µ 2 d r ` 1 d 1 dr ` 1 d 1
`dt = µr dθ → dt = r dθ → = =− 2 2 2 .
` dt2 µ2 r2 dθ r2 dθ µ r dθ r
By inspection, we find that it is convenient to define u, the reciprocal of r.
1
u≡ .
r
Then the equation for u is
`2 2 d2u `2 3
− 2 u 2 − 2 u + G(m + M )u2 = 0.
µ dθ µ
µ2
We multiply the equation by − `2u2 to find that the radial equation in u becomes compact:
d2u Gm2M 2
+u= .
dθ2 (m + M )`2
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Escape from Scientific Absurdity C22. Newton’s Universal Gravity Explains Kepler’s Laws Spring Version 2023

This equation resembles that of the simple harmonic oscillator! While Kepler observed elliptic
orbits only, Newton’s radial equation tells us that the solution is a conic section. As a central
force, Newton’s universal gravity satisfying the inverse square law explains all three laws
of planetary motion by Kepler after being substituted for the force in Newton’s laws of
motion.

s
2
α ` 2E`2
= 1 + ε cos θ, α= , ε= 1+ ,
r µk µk 2
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Escape from Scientific Absurdity C22. Newton’s Universal Gravity Explains Kepler’s Laws Spring Version 2023

where ε is the eccentricity and a derivation can be found in CM19 of KPOP E Classical Me-
chanics. Here, E is the total mechanical energy and k = GmM.
• Only bounded states are periodic.
• Both parabolic and hyperbolic orbits are unbounded.
• The parabolic orbit has the limit ṙ = 0 as r → ∞.
• The hyperbolic orbit has the limit ṙ2 > 0 as r → ∞.

Note that Newton did not know what energy is.

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