Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1

1.1 Power supplies - Block diagram

A regulated power supply ensures that the output current remains

constant, even if the input changes, by converting unregulated AC
(alternating current) to a constant DC (direct current).
The block diagram of a D.C power supply is shown in Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Block diagram of a D.C power supply

 The mains input is at a relatively high voltage; a step-down transformer of

appropriate turns ratio is used to convert this to a low voltage.
 The a.c. output from the transformer secondary is then rectified using
conventional silicon rectifier diodes to produce an unsmoothed (or
pulsating d.c.) output.
 This is then smoothed and filtered before being applied to a circuit which
will regulate (or stabilize) the output voltage so that it remains relatively
constant in spite of variations in both load current and incoming mains
voltage.
 Fig. 1.2 shows the realization of the block diagram of a D.C power supply
using the electronic components in Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.2 Block diagram of a D.C power supply showing principal

components
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1
 The iron-cored step-down transformer feeds a rectifier arrangement.
 The output of the rectifier is then applied to a high-value reservoir
capacitor. This capacitor stores a considerable amount of charge and is
being constantly topped-up by the rectifier arrangement. The capacitor
also helps to smooth out the voltage pulses produced by the rectifier.
 Finally, a stabilizing circuit (often based on a series transistor regulator
and a Zener diode voltage reference) provides a constant output voltage.

1.2 Rectifiers:

 Rectifiers are the circuits which converts a.c voltage to pulsating d.c
voltage.
 Rectifiers can be grouped into two types:

i) Half-wave Rectifier

ii) Full-wave Rectifier

1.2.1 Half-wave Rectifier

 The simplest form of rectifier circuit makes use of a single diode and,
since it operates on only either positive or negative half-cycles of the
supply, it is known as a half-wave rectifier. Fig. 1.3 shows a simple half-
wave rectifier circuit.

Figure 1.3 A simple half-wave rectifier circuit

 The mains voltage (220 to 240 V) is applied to the primary of a step- down
transformer (T1).
 The secondary of T1 steps down the 240 V r.m.s. to 12 V r.m.s.
 During positive half cycle, the diode D1 is forward biased and acts as a
closed switch as shown in figure 1.4, thus diode allows the current flows
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through the load RL and voltage is developed across it.

Figure 1.4 Half-wave rectifier circuit with D1 conducting (positive-half

cycles of secondary voltage)
 During negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased and acts as an
open switch as shown in figure 1.5, thus there will be no flow of current
through the load RL, thereby the output voltage is zero.

Figure 1.5 half-wave rectifier with D1 not conducting (negative- half cycles
of secondary voltage)
 The input and output voltage waveform of a half-wave rectifier is shown
in Fig. 1.6.

Figure 1.6 The input and output voltage waveform of a half-wave

rectifier
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1
 The relation between turns ratio and voltage of the primary and
secondary of the transformer is given by:

 The peak voltage output from the transformer’s secondary winding will
be given by:

Example:

A mains transformer having a turns ratio of 44:1 is connected to a 220 V

r.m.s. mains supply. If the secondary output is applied to a half-wave
rectifier, determine the peak voltage that will appear across a load.

Solution:

The r.m.s. secondary voltage will be given by:

The peak voltage developed after rectification will be given by:

Assuming that the diode is a silicon device with a forward voltage

drop of 𝑉𝛾 =0.6V, the actual peak voltage dropped across the load will
be:

Reservoir and Smoothing Circuits:

 Fig. 1.7 shows a simple half-wave rectifier circuit with reservoir
capacitor.
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1

Figure 1.7 A simple half-wave rectifier circuit with reservoir

capacitor
 The capacitor, C1, has been added to ensure that the output voltage
remains at, or near, the peak voltage even when the diode is not
conducting.
 When the primary voltage is first applied to T1, the first positive half-
cycle output from the secondary will charge C1 to the peak value seen
across RL.
 Hence C1 charges to 16.3 V at the peak of the positive half-cycle.
Because C1 and RL are in parallel, the voltage across R L will be the
same as that across C1.

Figure 1.8 A simple half-wave rectifier circuit with reservoir capacitor

 Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1

Figure 1.8(a) shows a further refinement of the simple power supply circuit. This circuit
employs two additional components, R1 and C1, which act as a filter to remove the ripple. The
value of C1 is chosen so that the component exhibits a negligible reactance.

Fig 1.8(a)Half-wave rectifier circuit with R–C smoothing filter

The amount of ripple is reduced by an approximate factor equal to

Problem:

Improved ripple filters

A further improvement can be achieved by using an inductor, L1, instead of a resistor in the
smoothing circuit(Fig 1.8 (b)). This circuit also offers the advantage that the minimum
d.c. voltage is dropped across the inductor.
 Fig 1.8 (b)). Half-wave rectifier circuit with L–C smoothing filter

Problem
The L–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists of L1 =
10 H and C2 = 1,000 μF. If 1 V of ripple appears at the input of the circuit, determine the amount
of ripple appearing at the output.
Solution:
The reactance of L1 at 50 Hz can be calculated from:

1.2.2 Full-wave rectifiers

 Unfortunately, the half-wave rectifier circuit is relatively inefficient as

conduction takes place only on alternate half-cycles.
 A better rectifier arrangement would make use of both positive and
negative half-cycles. These full-wave rectifier circuits offer a considerable
improvement over their half-wave counterparts.
 They are not only more efficient but are significantly less demanding
interms of the reservoir and smoothing components.
 There are two basic forms of full wave rectifier:
i) Bi-phase rectifier
ii) Bridge rectifier

i) Bi-phase rectifier circuits

Fig. 1.9 shows a simple bi-phase rectifier circuit.

 Figure 1.9 Bi-phase rectifier circuit

 Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the primary of the step-down

transformer (T1) which has two identical secondary windings, each
providing 12 V r.m.s. (the turns ratio of T1 will thus be 240/12 or 20:1
for each secondary winding).
 On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to point
B. Similarly, point B will be positive with respect to point C. In this
condition D1 will allow conduction (its anode will be positive with respect
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1
to its cathode) while D2 will not allow conduction (its anode will be
negative with respect to its cathode). Thus D1 alone conducts on positive
half-cycles.
 On negative half-cycles, point C will be positive with respect to point
B. Similarly, point B will be positive with respect to point A. In this
condition D2 will allow conduction (its anode will be positive with
respect to its cathode) while D1 will not allow conduction (its anode will
be negative with respect to its cathode). Thus D2 alone conducts on
negative half-cycles.
 In Fig. 1.10 (a) D1 is shown conducting on a positive half- cycle while
in Fig. 1.10 (b) D2 is shown conducting.

Figure 1.10 (a) Bi-phase rectifier with D1 conducting and D2 non-

conducting
(b) bi-phase rectifier with D2 conducting and D1 non-conducting

Full wave Rectifier with Filter:

 This component operates in exactly the same way as for the half-wave
circuit, i.e. it charges to approximately 16.3 V at the peak of the positive
half-cycle and holds the voltage at this level when the diodes are in
their non-conducting states.
 1.11 shows voltage waveforms for the bi-phase rectifier, with and
without C1 present.
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1

Figure 1.11 Waveforms for the bi-phase rectifier

II) Bridge rectifier circuits
 An alternative to the use of the bi-phase circuit is that of using a four-
diode bridge rectifier.
 A full-wave bridge rectifier arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.12.

Figure 1.12 Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit

 Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the primary of a step-down

transformer (T1). The secondary winding provides 12 V r.m.s.
(approximately 17 V peak) and has a turns ratio of 20:1, as before.
 On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to point
B. In this condition D1 and D2 will allow conduction while D3 and D4 will
not allow conduction.
 On negative half-cycles, point B will be positive with respect to point
A. In this condition D3 and D4 will allow conduction while D1 and D2 will
not allow conduction.
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1

Figure 1.13 (a) Bridge rectifier with D1 and D2 conducting, D3 and D4

non- conducting (b) bridge rectifier with D1 and D2 non-conducting, D3
and D4 conducting

Bridge rectifier with filters:

 Fig. 1.14 shows how a reservoir capacitor (C1) can be added to maintain
the output voltage when the diodes are not conducting.

Figure 1.14 Bridge rectifier with reservoir

 This component operates in exactly the same way as for the bi-phase
circuit, i.e. it charges to approximately 16.3 V at the peak of the positive
half-cycle and holds the voltage at this level when the diodes are in their
non-conducting states.
 The secondary and rectified output waveforms for the bridge rectifier
are shown in Fig. 1.15.
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1

Figure 1.15 Waveforms for the bridge rectifier

1.3 Voltage regulators

 Voltage regulator is a circuit that maintains a constant d.c output voltage

irrespective of variations in the input line voltage or in the load.
 Voltage regulator is one of the important applications of a Zener diode.
 A simple voltage regulator is shown in Fig. 1.16.

Figure 1.16 A simple shunt Zener voltage regulator

 RS is included to limit the zener current to a safe value when the load is
disconnected.
 When a load (RL) is connected, the zener current (IZ) will fall as current is
diverted into the load resistance (it is usual to allow a minimum current
of 2 mA to 5 mA in order to ensure that the diode regulates).
 The output voltage (VZ) will remain at the Zener voltage until regulation
fails at the point at which the potential divider formed by RS and RL
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1
produces a lower output voltage that is less than VZ.
 The ratio of RS to RL is thus important.
 Regulated output VZ is given by:

Where, VIN is the unregulated input voltage.

 Thus the maximum value for RS can be calculated from:

 The power dissipated in the zener diode will be given by PZ = IZ × VZ,

hence the minimum value for RS can be determined from the off-load
condition when:

Where, PZ max. is the maximum rated power dissipation for the zener
diode.

Example: A 5 V zener diode has a maximum rated power dissipation of 500

mW. If the diode is to be used in a simple regulator circuit to supply a
regulated 5 V to a load having a resistance of 400 Ω, determine a suitable
value of series resistor for operation in conjunction with a supply of 9 V.
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1

Hence suitable value for RS would be 150Ω (roughly midway between two
extremes)
1.4 Output resistance and voltage regulation

 In a perfect power supply, the output voltage would remain constant

regardless of the current taken by the load.
 Output resistance Rout is defined as the change in output voltage
divided by the corresponding change in output current and hence is
given by:

where 𝗈 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 represents a small change in output (load) current and 𝗈

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 represents a corresponding small change in output voltage.

 The regulation of a power supply is given by the relationship:

 Ideally, the value of regulation should be very small.

 Simple shunt zener diode regulators of the type shown in Fig. 1.17 are
capable of producing values of regulation of 5% to 10%.
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1
 More sophisticated circuits based on discrete components produce
values of between 1% and 5% and integrated circuit regulators often
provide values of 1% or less.

Example: The following data were obtained during a test carried out on a
d.c. power supply:
(i) Load test:
Output voltage (no-load) = 12 V
Output voltage (2 A load current) = 11.5 V
(ii) Regulation test:
Output voltage (mains input, 220 V) = 12 V Output
voltage (mains input, 200 V) = 11.9 V
Determine (a) the equivalent output resistance of the power supply and (b)the
regulation of the power supply.
Solution:

1.5 Voltage multipliers

Voltage multiplier is a modified capacitor filter circuit that delivers

a dc voltage twice or more times of the peak value (amplitude) of the input
ac voltage.
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1
Applications

1. Voltage multipliers are used for high-voltage and low-current devices

such as cathode-ray tubes (the picture tubes in TV receivers,
oscilloscopes and computer display).

2. Voltage multipliers can still be found in modern TVs, photocopiers,

and bug zappers.

3. High voltage multipliers are used in spray painting equipment, most

commonly found in automotive manufacturing facilities.

4. A voltage multiplier with an output of about 100kV is used in the nozzle

of the paint sprayer to electrically charge the atomized paint particles
which then get attracted to the oppositely charged metal surfaces to be
painted. This helps reduce the volume of paint used and helps in
spreading an even coat of paint.

 By adding a second diode and capacitor, the output of the simple half-
wave rectifier can be increased. A voltage doubler using this technique
is shown in Fig. 1.17.

Figure 1.17 A Voltage Doubler

 In this arrangement C1 will charge to the positive peak secondary voltage

while C2 will charge to the negative peak secondary voltage.
 Since the output is taken from C1 and C2 connected in series the
resulting output voltage is twice that produced by one diode alone.
Switched mode power supplies(SMPS)
Power supplies can be divided into two principal categories, linear and
non-linear types.
Linear power supplies make use of conventional control techniques – the
regulating device operates through a continuous range of current and
voltage according to the input .
Non linear power supplies, use digital techniques where the regulating
device is switched rapidly ‘on’ and ‘off’ in order to control the mean
current and voltage delivered to the load. These non-linear power supplies
are commonly referred to as switched mode power supplies or just SMPS.
SMPS can be used to step-up or step-down the input voltage.
The advantages of SMPS are:
 Ability to cope with a very wide input voltage range
 Very high efficiency
 Compact size and light weight.
disadvantages of SMPS are:
 relatively complex circuitry
 appreciable noise generated
The circuit diagram shown in Fig.1.18 . With S1 closed, the switching
diode, D, will be reverse biased and will thus be in a non-conducting state.
Current will flow through the inductor, L, charging the capacitor, C, and
delivering current to the load, RL .

Fig :1.18 Principle of the switched mode power supply

When S1 is subsequently opened, The current that was flowing through
the inductor cannot stop suddenly. To keep the current flowing, it
 reverses its polarity — that is, it switches the direction of its
[Link] for the circuit of Fig. 1.18 are shown . The inductor
voltage, V L , is alternately positive and negative. When S1 is closed, the
voltage dropped across the inductor will be equal to +(Vin − Vout ).
When S1 is open, the voltage across the inductor will be equal to −Vout

Waveforms for the switched mode power supply

The average current through the inductor, I L , is equal to the load current,
Iout . The ripple voltage can be reduced by using a relatively large value
for the capacitor, C.
When S1 is closed
 The inductor is connected to the input voltage.
 The inductor voltage (Vₗ) is positive — shown as (V_in – V_out) on the graph.
 The inductor stores energy in its magnetic field, so the current (Iₗ) through it increases gradually
(the sloping upward line).
 The diode is reverse biased and does not conduct.

When S1 is opened
 The connection to the input is cut off.
 The inductor now releases the energy it had stored earlier.
 To keep current flowing, the polarity of the inductor reverses, making its voltage negative (–
V_out).
 The diode becomes forward biased and provides a path for current to flow to the load.
 The inductor current (Iₗ) now decreases gradually as the stored energy is released (the sloping
downward line).
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1

Amplifiers

An amplifier is an electronic device that increases the voltage, current,

or power of a signal. Amplifiers are used in wireless communications and
broadcasting, and in audio equipment of all kinds.
Types of Amplifiers:
The following are the types of amplifiers:

1. A.C. coupled amplifiers

In a.c. coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a way that
d.c. levels are isolated and only the a.c. components of a signal are
transferred from stage to stage.

2. D.C. coupled amplifiers

In d.c. (or direct) coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a
way that stages are not isolated to d.c. potentials. Both a.c. and d.c.
signal components are transferred from stage to stage.

3. Large-signal amplifiers
Large-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for appreciable voltage
and/or current levels (typically from 1 V to 100 V or more).

4. Small-signal amplifiers
Small-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for low-level signals
(normally less than 1 V and often much smaller). Small-signal
amplifiers have to be specially designed to combat the effects of noise.

5. Audio frequency amplifiers

Audio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is
normally associated with audio signals (e.g. 20 Hz to 20 kHz).

6. Wideband amplifiers
Wideband amplifiers are capable of amplifying a very wide range of
frequencies, typically from a few tens of hertz to several megahertz
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1.

7. Radio frequency amplifiers

Radio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is
normally associated with radio signals (e.g. from 100 kHz to over 1
GHz).

8. Low-noise amplifiers
Low-noise amplifiers are designed so that they contribute negligible noise
(signal disturbance) to the signal being amplified.
These amplifiers are usually designed for use with very small signal levels
(usually less than 10 mV or so).

1.6 Gain

 One of the most important parameters of an amplifier is the amount

of amplification or gain that it provides.

 Gain is simply the ratio of output voltage to input voltage, output

current to input current, or output power to input power.

 These three ratios give, respectively the voltage gain, current gain and
power gain. Thus,
 Figure 1.19: Block diagram for an amplifier
showing input and output voltages and currents
Note that, since power is the product of current and voltage (P = I V), we
can infer that:

Example: An amplifier produces an output voltage of 2 V for an input of

50 mV. If the input and output currents in this condition are, respectively,
4 mA and 200 mA, determine:
(a) the voltage gain; (b) the current gain;(c) the power gain.
Solution
(a) The voltage gain is calculated from:

(b) The current gain is calculated from:

(c) The power gain is calculated from:

Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1
Note that the same result is obtained from:

1.7 Input and output resistance

 Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and it is
expressed in ohms.
 The input of an amplifier is normally purely resistive (i.e. any reactive
component is negligible) in the middle of its working frequency range
(i.e. the mid-band).
 Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-
circuit output current and is measured in ohms.
 Fig. 1.20 shows how the input and output resistances are ‘seen’ looking
into the input and output terminals, respectively.

Figure 1.20 The Input and output resistance, with the inputand
output terminals, respectively.
1.8 Frequency response

 The frequency response characteristics for various types of amplifier

are shown in Fig. 1.21.

Figure 1.21 Frequency response and bandwidth (output power plotted

against frequency)
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1
 The frequency response of an amplifier is usually specified in terms of the
upper and lower cut-off frequencies of the amplifier.
 These frequencies are those at which the output power has dropped to
50% (otherwise known as the −3 dB points) or where the voltage gain has
dropped to 70.7% of its mid-band value.
 Figs 1.22 and 1.23, respectively, show how the bandwidth can be
expressed in terms of either power or voltage (the cut- off frequencies, f1
and f2, and bandwidth are identical).

Figure 1.22 Frequency response and bandwidth (output power plotted

against frequency)

Figure 1.23 Frequency response and bandwidth (output voltage plotted

against frequency)
Example: Determine the mid-band voltage gain and upper and lower cut-
off frequencies for the amplifier whose frequency response is shown in figure
below.
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1

Solution: The mid-band voltage gain corresponds with the flat part of
the frequency response characteristic. At that point the voltage gain
reaches a maximum of 35.
The voltage gain at the two cut-off frequencies can be calculated from:

Av cut-off = 0.707 × Av max = 0.707 × 35 = 24.7

This value of gain intercepts the frequency response graph at f1 = 57 Hz
and f2 = 590 kHz.

1.9 Bandwidth

 The bandwidth of an amplifier is usually taken as the difference between

the upper and lower cut-off frequencies
Bandwidth = f2 – f1
 The bandwidth of an amplifier must be sufficient to accommodate the
range of frequencies present within the signals that it is to be presented
with.
 Many signals contain harmonic components (i.e. signals at2f, 3f, 4f,
etc. where f is the frequency of the fundamental signal).
 To reproduce a square wave, for example, requires an amplifier with a
very wide bandwidth (note that a square wave comprises an infinite
series of harmonics).

1.10 Phase Shift

 Phase shift is the phase angle between the input and output signal
voltages measured in degrees.
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1
 The measurement is usually carried out in the mid-band where, for most
amplifiers, the phase shift remains relatively constant.
 The conventional single-stage transistor amplifiers provide phase shifts
of either 180° or 360°.

1.20 Negative feedback

 Many practical amplifiers use negative feedback in order to precisely

control the gain, reduce distortion and improve bandwidth.
 The gain can be reduced to a manageable value by feeding back a small
proportion of the output.
 The amount of feedback determines the overall (or closed- loop) gain.
Because this form of feedback has the effect of reducing the overall
gain of the circuit, this form of feedback is known as negative
feedback.
 An alternative form of feedback, where the output is fed back in such
a way as to reinforce the input (rather than to subtract from it) is known
as positive feedback. This form of feedback is used in oscillator circuits.
Fig. 1.24 shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with negative
feedback applied.
 In this circuit, the proportion of the output voltage fed back to the
input is given by β and the overall voltage gain will be given by:

Figure 1.24 Amplifier with negative feedback applied

Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1

 Hence, the overall gain with negative feedback applied will be less than
the gain without feedback.
 Furthermore, if Av is very large (as is the case with an operational
amplifier) the overall gain with negative feedback applied will be given
by:
G = 1/β (when Av is very large)

 The loop gain of a feedback amplifier is defined as the product of β and

Av.

Example An amplifier with negative feedback applied has an open-loop

voltage gain of 50, and one-tenth of its output is fed back to the input
(i.e. β = 0.1). Determine the overall voltage gain with negative feedback
applied.

Solution: With negative feedback applied, the overall voltage gain is:
Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1
Example If, in Example 7.3, the amplifier’s open-loop voltage gains
increases by 20%, determine the percentage increase in overall voltage
gain.

Solution The new value of voltage gain will be given by:

Example An integrated circuit that produces an open loop gain of 100 is to be

used as the basis of an amplifier stage having a precise voltage gain of
20. Determine the amount of feedback required.

Solution: Re-arranging the formula,

Introduction to Electronics & Communication Module-1
MODULE-1

QUETSION BANK
1. What is a regulated power supply? With neat block diagram Summarize the
working of DC power supply. Also mention the principal components used in
each block.
2. With circuit diagram and waveforms brief out the operation of Half wave rectifiers
with filters.
3. Discuss the need of filter circuit. With circuit diagram and waveforms brief out
the operation of smoothing filter for full wave rectifiers.
4. Explain the working of Bridge rectifier circuit without filter with neat diagram
and waveforms.
5. A 5V zener diode has a maximum rated power dissipation of 500 mW. If the
diode is to be used in a simple regulator circuit to supply a regulated 5V to a
load having a resistance of 500 Ω, determine a suitable value of series resistor
for operation in conjunction with a supply of 9V.
6. What is voltage multiplier and mention its applications?
7. Mention the advantages of Negative Feedback in amplifiers circuits. With
relevant equations and diagram, explain the concept of negative feedback.
8. What is an amplifier? Explain the types of amplifiers?
9. Explain the following terms
i) Gain ii) Bandwidth iii) Frequency response iv) Phase shift
v) Input & output resistance
10. An integrated circuit that produces an open loop gain of 50 is to be used
as the basis of an amplifier stage having a precise voltage gain of 10.
Determine the amount of feedback required.