GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES

TOPICS
• DAMS
Types of dams
Selection of dam sites
Geological characters for investigation
Selection of the dam type
 DAMS
• A dam may be defined as a solid barrier
constructed at suitable location across
river valley with a view of impounding
water flowing through that river.
• Dams are created for the following
objectives:
 Generation of hydropower energy
 Providing water for irrigation facilities
 Fish farming
 Fighting droughts
 Controlling of floods
 Water supply for domestic consumption
 Providing navigational facilities
Types of dams
• Gravity dams
 A gravity is a solid
concrete structure,
generally having a
triangular profile,
which is so designed
that it can safely stand
against the
precalculated volume
of water by virtue of
its weight.
 Forces in the dam :
thrust of impounded
water in x-axis and
weight of the dam in y-
axis.
 Some examples
• Bhakra Dam is a concrete gravity dam across
the Sutlej River, and is in Bilaspur, Himachal
Pradesh in northern India.
• India's second tallest at 225.55 m (740 ft) high
next to the 261m Tehri Dam.
• The 90 km long reservoir created by the
Bhakra Dam is spread over an area of 168.35
km2. In terms of storage of water, it withholds
the second largest reservoir in India, the first
being Indira Sagar Dam in Madhya Pradesh
with capacity of 12.22 billion cm3.
Butress dam
• Butress dams are
derived from
gravity dams. This
type of dams are
supported uses
thin concrete slab
which is supported
from downstream
side by butresses.
• It uses multiple
reinforced
columns to support
the dams. Since it
has relatively thin
structure so there
is considerable
amount of saving
of concrete
material.
 • The extraordinary Mir Alam multi-arch dam was
completed in 1804 for the water supply of
Hyderabad.
• This dam was the work of Henry Russel, a
member of the British Royal Engineers. The
structure, reaching a height of 12 m, consisted
of 21 semicircular, vertical arches that were of
constant thicknesses and variable spans.

Arch dams
It is an arch – shaped solid structure made up of concrete which is
designed in such a way that a major part of the thrust forces acting
on the dam are transmitted to arch.
There are mainly two types of ach dams :
• Constant radius arch dams : radius of curvature throughout the
structure is constant and upstream face is vertical.
• Variable radius dams : curvatures are different on upstream and
downstream sides.
These types of dames are best suited for narrow valleys.
An arch dam having a curvature both in horizontal and vertical
alignment is often called a CUPOLA dam.
 Example
• Arch dams are quite thin walled dams
and hence lighter in weight.
• The Idukki Dam, located in Kerala,
India, is a 168.91 m (554 ft) tall arch
dam.
• It is built on the Periyar River, in the
ravine between the Kuravan and
Kurathi Hills in Kerala, India.
• At 167.68 metres, it is one of the
highest arch dams in Asia and third
tallest arch dam. Technically, the
dam type is a concrete double,
curvature parabolic, thin arc dam.
• It supports a 780 MW hydroelectric
power station. It was constructed
and is owned by the Kerala State
Electricity Board.
Embankment dams
• These are non rigid
structures which are build
over wide valleys with
varying foundations. These
are trapezoidal in shape and
are build of single type of
material(such as earth fill or
rock fill) or combination of
more than one material.
• The main advantage of these
dams is that it can be
constructed on weak
foundation.
• Impervious core is placed in
the middle of the
embankment body.
• Generally riprap is used to
control erosion.
 Example
• The Tehri Dam is the highest dam in
India and one of the tallest in the
world.
• It is a multi-purpose rock and earthfill
embankment dam on the Bhagirathim
River near Tehri in Uttarakhand, India.
• It is the primary dam of the THDC
India Ltd. and the Tehri hydroelectric
complex. The Tehri Dam withholds a
reservoir for irrigation, municipal
water supply and the generation of
1,000 MW of hydroelectricity.
• The dam's 1,000 MW pumped-storage
scheme is currently under
construction.
COMPOSITE DAMS
• Composite dams are
combinations of one
or more dam types.
• Most often a large
section of a dam will
be either an
embankment or
gravity dam, with the
section responsible
for power generation
being a buttress or
arch.
 Example
• Ujani Dam, also known as Bhima Dam
or Bhima Irrigation Project, on the
Bhima River, a tributary of the Krishna
River, is an earthfill cum Masonry
gravity dam located near Ujani village
of Madha Taluk in Solapur district of
the state of Maharashtra in India.

SELECTION OF DAM SITES

Selection of sites is based on following basis:
Topographically: most suitable place must be chosen
for construction. Ideally it must be a narrow gorge or
a small valley with enough catchment area available
behind so that calculated amount of water can be
easily stored in the reservoir created upstream.
• Location of spillway: All dam should
have an adequate spillway for passing
flood flows. If a river gorge is narrow,
then there may not be sufficient spillway
width available and a suitable location on
the periphery of the reservoir has to be
found to locate a spillway.
• Possibility of river diversion during
construction : The way, river can be
diverted at a particular site for making
way for construction of the dam may
affect the design of the dam and also the
construction schedule.
• Sedimentation possibilities :The average
quantity of sediment carried by the river
has to be known, as precisely as
possible, which would give an idea of the
rate at which a proposed reservoir way
get filled up.
• Technically: the site must be sound as
possible: strong, impermeable and stable.
Strong rocks make the job of designer easy.
Impermeable sites ensure better storage
inventories. Site must be stable with respect
to seismic shocks slope failures around dam.
• Constructionally: the site should be far
from the materials which will be used for the
construction. Their non-availability will make
the cost of project high.
• Human welfare: site selection should be
done in such a way that it must cause
minimum damage to public in the of
destruction or failure.
• Economically: the creation of the dam
must not create ecological disorder. Fish
culture is the first sector that suffers the
major shock due to dam construction. It
indirectly affects the other population. The
dam should become an acceptable element
of the ecological set up of the area.
 Geological characters for
investigation
• Geology of the site
a. Lithology : surface and subsurface
studies must be carried out. These
studies reveal the type, the
composition and texture of the rocks
along the valley floor.
b. Structures:
1. Dip and strike: the resultant force due
to weight of the dam and the up
thrust of the impounded water is
always inclined the downstream as
shown in the figure.
•So, gently upstream dipping layers
offer best resistance to the resultant
force of the dam.
•So most unfavorable strike direction
is the one in which the bed strike is
parallel to the axis of the dam and the
slip is downward.
2. Faults: Dams founded on the fault
zones are most liable to the shocks
during an earthquake. Generally the
small scale fault zones can be
treated effectively by grouting.
3. Folds: the effects on of fold on rock
are shattering and jointing along the
axial planes and stressing of limbs.
In the synclinal region dams placed
on the upstream limbs have the risk
of leakage from beneath the dam.
4. Engineering properties of rocks:
a. Strength parameter: it consist of three
investigations – laboratory, in-situ static and
dynamic.
• The compressive and shearing strength of the
rocks are estimated by laboratory test.
• These tests are complimented with in-situ
studies using static and dynamic studies.
• Static study: by this test settlements and strains
are recorded with different loadings which is
used to estimate the bearing strength, modulus
of elasticity and Poisson's ratio.
• The dynamic method involve creating seismic
waves artificially at selected locations and
recording the velocity of the shock waves
through the rocks of the sites. The shock wave
velocity relates to the density, rigidity, porosity
and permeability of the rocks at the site.
 b. Porosity and permeability: a dam is a water
impounding structure. So water must not find easy
avenues to escape other than provided in design
such as spillways. So porosity and permeability of
the rocks are tested both in laboratory and in-situ.
Artificial treatment is given to the critical zones
such as grouting to make the rocks water tight.

Selection of the dam type

Material availability:
If the cost of transportation of construction material is excessively
high, then an alternate design with locally available materials, have
to be considered.
Seismicity :
It is very important to analyse the behaviour of the dam under earth
quake vibrations thereby making it possible for the designer to
check if a particular section of the dam is suitable or not.
• Geology and foundation strength- The existence
of joint patterns in the abutments (their
orientation, inclination and infilling) may indicate
the possibility of instability under loading from an
arch dam and reservoir water. Such a site would
be more satisfactory for an embankment dam or
an adequately dimensioned gravity dam.
• Where the possibility exists of differential
deformation of the foundation along the axis of a
dam, a gravity or arch dam would not be a suitable
choice because of their inherent rigidity due to
their construction in concrete. Instead, an
embankment dam may be proposed, which is
more flexible.
• Further, it may be noted that the stresses
expected at the base of a dam may have to be
checked with the bearing capacity of the
foundation material.
• Embankment dams produce the least formation
stress, Followed by gravity, buttress and arch, in
that order.
• Hydrology- If, during the construction
season, there are possibilities of the
partially constructed dam being overtopped
by the floods of the river water, then a
concrete dam section would be preferred
then an embankment dam section.
• If an embankment dam section is still
proposed to be built, then adequate
diversion works have to be provided for
diverting the river flood water.
• Unavailability of skilled workers- In case of
sophisticated dam section, skilled workers
are an absolute necessity. Unavailability of
such workers at proposed dam construction
site may have to force the designer to adopt
a more easy to construct a type of dam.
Valley shape and overburden-
The shape of the river valley and the overburden also
influences the type of dam that may be proposed to be
constructed.
•In case of a wide valley with deep deposits of fine-
grained soil overburden favours earth fill embankment
dams (Figure a) .
•A river valley that has much less over-burden (Figure
b), would be suitable for embankment, gravity or
buttress dams.
•A narrow valley with steep sides (Figure c) and with
sound rock in the valley floor and sides may be suited
to an arch or cupola dams.
•In case of a wide valley separated in two parts (Figure
d) may suggest a combination of two types of dams. An
earth fill embankment may be constructed where the
overburden depth is considerable and a concrete
gravity dam on the site where the overburden is less.
The spillway portion can then be located on the
concrete gravity section.
Engineering Applications
Dams & Geology of Dams

(ENGINEERING GEOLOGY)
 Outline
1. Introduction to Dams
2. Components of Dams
3. Geology of Dam Sites
i. Important Geological Considerations at Dam Site
 Dams
Dam is a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across
a river valley to store flowing water.
Storage of water is utilized for following objectives:
 Hydropower
 Irrigation
 Water for domestic consumption
 Drought and flood control
 For navigational facilities
 Other additional utilization is to develop fisheries
Structure of Dam
Upstream Crest Down stream

Spillway
MWL
Max. level (inside dam)

NWL
Normal
water level

Free board
Sluice way

Gallery

Heel
Toe
 Heel: contact with the ground on the upstream side

 Toe: contact on the downstream side

 Abutment: Sides of the valley on which the structure of the dam rest

 Galleries: small rooms like structure left within the dam for checking operations.

 Diversion tunnel: Tunnels are constructed for diverting water before the construction of dam.
This helps in keeping the river bed dry.

 Spillways: It is the arrangement near the top to release the excess water of the reservoir to
downstream side

 Sluice way: An opening in the dam near the ground level, which is used to clear the silt
accumulation in the reservoir side.
 Emergency Spillway: this type of spillway is designed for extreme flood conditions.

 Chute : is sloping/sliding part of a spillway.

 Stilling Basin: is collecting pond for flowing water by spillway.

 Training Wall: side walls of a spillway to stop overtopping of water by sides of spillway.
 Geology of Dam Sites
The success of a dam is not only related to its own safety and
stability but also to the success of associated reservoirs.
 In other words, on construction, if a dam stands firmly but if
its reservoir leaks profusely then such a dam is to be treated
only as a failure because the purpose of which it was
constructed was not served.
 Geological Considerations at Dam Sites

 The important Geological requirements which should be

considered in the selection of dam are as follows;
1. Narrow River Valley

2. Occurrence of bedrock at a shallow depth

3. Competent rocks to offer a stable foundation

4. Proper Geological Structures

 Geological Considerations at Dam Sites

Narrow River Valley:

 At the proposed dam site, if the river valley is narrow i.e. least areal
cross-section, only a small dam is required, which means the cost of
dam construction will be less. On the other hand, if the valley is wide, a
bigger dam is necessary which means the construction cost will be very
high.
 But such sites should not be blindly selected without further
investigations, because sometimes they may have severe defects which
may lead to serious leakage from the reservoir and may effect the safety
of the dam.
 Geological Considerations at Dam Sites

Bedrock at Shallow Depths:

 To ensure its safety and stability a dam has to necessarily rest on
(Physically) very strong and (Structurally) very stable. i.e. (Bedrock). If
such competent bedrocks occur near the surface or at shallow depths,
the foundation cost of the dam will be naturally be less. On the other
hand, if competent bedrocks occur at a greater depths, the cost of the
foundation will be very high because it involves extensive work of
excavation of loose overburden and concrete refilling.
 Geological Considerations at Dam Sites

Bedrock at Shallow Depths:

 The thickness of sediments or loose overburden along the river valley
depends on the nature and the stage of development of the river. In
other words, strong and fresh bedrocks may occur at or near the
surface, therefore only small dams may be suitable there to serve a
limited purpose.
 The general occurrence of material like clay, silt, sand and gravel along
the river bed, naturally makes it difficult to assess the thickness of loose
overburden by mere surficial studies. Therefore to know the bedrock
profile, geophysical investigations such as Electrical Resistivity Studies
or Seismic Refraction Studies are carried out carefully.
 Geological Considerations at Dam Sites

Competent Rocks for Safe Foundation:

 If igneous rock occurs at the selected dam site, they will offer a safe
basis, and weak sedimentary rocks, particularly shale’s, poorly
cemented sandstones and limestone’s shall naturally be undesirable to
serve as foundation rocks.
 Geological Considerations at Dam Sites

Competent Rocks for Safe Foundation:

 The other characteristics along with the rock type which must be
considered at the site for the rock to serve as a foundation for major
dams depends on:
1. The extent of weathering it has undergone

2. The occurrence of intrusions

3. The extent of fracturing

4. The extent of geological structures, the mode and number of rock types concerned.
 Geological Considerations at Dam Sites

Suitability of Metamorphic Rocks:

 Among the Metamorphic Rocks:
1. Gneisses are generally competent like granite, unless they possess very high degree of foliations and are
richly accompanied by mica-like minerals.
2. Quartzites are very hard and highly resistant to weathering. They are neither porous nor permeable.
3. Marbles, like quartzite, are compact, bear a granulose structure, are not porous, nor permeable and
reasonably strong too. But by virtue of their chemical composition and minerals they are unsuitable at
dam sites.
4. Slates bear a typical slaty cleavage. Hence this rock is soft and weak and undesirable at dam sites.
 Geological Considerations at Dam Sites

Suitability of Metamorphic Rocks:

 Among the Metamorphic Rocks:
1. Gneisses are generally competent like granite, unless they possess very high degree of
foliations and are richly accompanied by mica-like minerals.
2. Quartzites are very hard and highly resistant to weathering. They are neither porous nor
permeable.
3. Marbles, like quartzite, are compact, bear a granulose structure, are not porous, nor
permeable and reasonably strong too. But by virtue of their chemical composition and
minerals they are unsuitable at dam sites.
4. Slates bear a typical slaty cleavage. Hence this rock is soft and weak and undesirable at dam
sites.
 Geological Considerations at Dam Sites

Effects of Associated Geological Structures:

 For the stability of a dam, the occurrence of favourable geological structures is a
very important requirement.
Cases of undisturbed i.e. Horizontal Strata:
 This geological situation is good at the dam site because the load of the dam
acts perpendicular to the bedding planes, which means that beds are in an
advantageous position to bear the loads with full competence.
 Further, the seepage of reservoir water that may take place beneath the dam is
effectively prevented by the weight of the dam which acts vertically downwards.
 Thus the possible uplift pressure which is dangerous to the stability of dam is
effectively reduced.
 Geological Considerations at Dam Sites

Tilted Beds:
 Situation with beds having 10 Degree to 30 Degree inclination in the upstream
direction is ideal because the resultant force act more or less perpendicular to the
bedding plane which are dipping in the upstream side.
Beds with Steep Upstream Dip:
 Such a situation is not bad but not as advantageous as that of previous
situations, for obvious reasons, i.e. in this case, there shall be no uplift on the
dam site and no leakage of water from the reservoir, but due to the steep dip the
bedding planes are not perpendicular to the resultant force, this means the rock
will not be as compatible as in previous case.
 Geological Considerations at Dam Sites

Beds with Steep Downstream Dip:

 For obvious reason this situation has all the disadvantages of previous case.
Further, here the resultant force and bedding planes are nearly parallel, which
means the beds will be even less competent.
Beds which are folded:
 Folding of beds, which occurs on a relatively large scale, is generally less
dangerous then faulting. Unless the folds are of a complex nature.
 However the folded rocks are not only under strain but also physically fractured
along the crests. Hence grouting and other precautions may have to be
considered, depending on the context, to improve the stability and competence of
rocks at the site.
 Geological Considerations at Dam Sites

Beds which are faulted:

 Occurrence of faulting irrespective of its attitude (Strike and Dips), right at the
dam site in most undesirable. If the faults are active, under no circumstances, can
dam construction be taken up there. This is not only because of the fear of
possible relative displacement of the site itself but also due to the possible
occurrence of earthquakes.
 Further, if the fault zone is crushed or intensely fractured, it becomes physically
incompetent to withstand the forces of the dam.
 Thus location of dams on a fault zone is undesirable for different reasons.
 Geological Considerations at Dam Sites

Beds which have Joints:

 Among the different geological structures, joints are the most common and are
found to occur in all kinds of rocks, almost everywhere.
 But since the rocks with these joints are not under any strain, and also because of
the scope to overcome their effects easily by simple treatment, they are not
considered as serious defects. Grouting is generally capable of overcoming the
adverse effects of joints because it fill the gaps of joints, increase compactness
and competency of the rocks and reduce porosity and permeability.
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The End