COLLEGE OF HEALTH, YAMFO

Assessing the Impact of Water Contamination from Galamsey Activities on Public Health

in Dunkwa-on-Offin in the upper Denkyira East Municipality

CoHY/SHIM/24/313
PRINCE OTENG AMOH

CoHY/SHIM/23/215
CYNTHIA OWUSU

January, 2026
 ©Year (2026)

Prince Oteng Amoh

College of Health, Yamfo

Cynthia Owusu

College of Health, Yamfo

 COLLEGE OF HEALTH, YAMFO
DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNITY HEALTH INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

PROJECT WORK

ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF WATER CONTAMINATION FROM

GALAMSEY ACTIVITIES ON PUBLIC HEALTH IN DUNKWA-ON-OFFIN IN THE

UPPER DENKYIRA EAST MUNICIPALITY

BY

PRINCE OTENG AMOH

(CoHY/SHIM/24/313)

AND

CYNTHIA OWUSU

(CoHY/SHIM/23/215)

Project work submitted to the Department of Community Health Information

Management, College of Health, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

Bachelor of Science degree in Health Information Management

January, 2026
Candidates’ Declaration

We, hereby declare that this project work titled ”Assessing the Impact of Water Contamination

from Galamsey Activities on Public Health in Dunkwa-on-Offin in the upper Denkyira East

Municipality” is the result of our original work and that no part of it has been presented for

another degree in this college or elsewhere.

Candidate’s signature: ___________________ Date: 14th January , 2026

Name of Student: PRINCE OTENG AMOH

Candidate’s signature: ___________________ Date: 14th January , 2026

Name of Student: CYNTHIA OWUSU

Supervisor’s Declaration

I, hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of the project work was supervised in

accordance with the guidelines on supervision of thesis laid down by the College Of Health,

Yamfo.

Supervisor’s signature …………………………………… Date…………………

Name of Supervisor : MR. JOSEPH ANTWI BARIMAH

 CHAPTER ONE (1)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Water contamination is a global concern that adversely affects the health and livelihoods of

millions worldwide. Approximately 230 million people are at risk of arsenic contamination,

which poses severe health risks, including cancer and cardiovascular diseases (Bhat et al., 2024).

Furthermore, waterborne diseases such as cholera and hepatitis continue to pose significant

threats to public health, with an estimated 3-5 million cholera cases reported annually (Rathore,

2021). Beyond health implications, water pollution incurs economic costs, such as increased

medical expenses and disruptions to agricultural and industrial activities (Du Plessis, 2017).

The quality of water resources is essential for socio-economic development, public health, and

ecological balance. In many developing countries, water sources are under threat from industrial

discharges, agricultural runoff, and illegal mining activities, which introduce harmful

contaminants into rivers and groundwater. Contaminants such as arsenic, lead, and cadmium

disrupt ecosystems and accumulate in the food chain, compounding their effects on human

health. The issue is particularly acute in Sub-Saharan Africa, where inadequate regulation

exacerbates the problem (Darko et al., 2023).

In Ghana, illegal mining activities, popularly referred to as "galamsey," have exacerbated water

contamination. Research reveals elevated levels of heavy metals, including lead, cadmium, and
iron, in water bodies affected by these activities, often exceeding safe drinking water thresholds

(Darko et al., 2023). Such contamination has forced water treatment facilities to shut down,

thereby increasing water treatment costs and reducing access to clean water (Wiafe et al., 2022).

The Dunkwa-on-Offin area in the Upper Denkyira East Municipality serves as a microcosm of

the broader challenges posed by galamsey in Ghana. While this practice provides employment

and economic benefits (Annan, 2024), its environmental costs are immense, including the

destruction of water sources and arable land (Obiri et al., 2016). Regulatory difficulties persist

due to socio-economic factors such as poverty and lack of alternative employment (Andrews,

2015). This study aims to explore these dynamics, with a particular focus on public health.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The illegal small-scale mining operations in Dunkwa-on-Offin have caused severe water

pollution, primarily affecting the River Offin, a critical water source for the community. Heavy

metals such as mercury, lead, and copper have been detected at alarming levels, posing risks to

human health, Vulnerable populations; including children, pregnant women, the elderly, and

individuals with chronic illnesses or weak immune systems are particularly at risk of waterborne

diseases linked to contaminated water.

Despite existing knowledge of these risks, galamsey continues to flourish in many parts of

Ghana. Comprehensive assessments of its public health impacts remain scarce (Emmanuel et al.,

2018). This study addresses this gap by focusing on the health implications of galamsey-induced

water contamination for the Dunkwa-on-Offin community, emphasizing the plight of vulnerable

groups.
1.3 MAIN OBJECTIVE

To assess the impact of water contamination from galamsey activities on public health in

Dunkwa-on-Offin.

1.4 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

 To determine the prevalence of waterborne diseases in Dunkwa-on-Offin and their

correlation with water contamination.

 To evaluate the impact of water contamination on vulnerable populations, such as

children, the elderly, and pregnant women.

 To assess the community’s knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding water safety and

disease prevention.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. How prevalent are waterborne diseases in Dunkwa-on-Offin, and what is their correlation

with water contamination?

2. What is the impact of water contamination on vulnerable populations, such as children,

the elderly, and pregnant women?

3. What are the community’s knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding water safety and

disease prevention?

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This research is essential for understanding the prevalence of waterborne diseases in Dunkwa-

on-Offin and their correlation with water contamination. It aims to shed light on the impacts of

water pollution on vulnerable populations, contributing to the broader body of literature on

public health and environmental challenges in Ghana.

The study provides relevant data on impact of water contamination from galamsey activities on

public health. This research will also serve as reference material for further research in the area

of water contamination resulting from illegal mining, Impact on public health and attitudes

towards safety and disease prevention.

Additionally, the findings will inform policy-makers and stakeholders in designing targeted

interventions to mitigate the adverse effects of water contamination and promote sustainable

water resource management.

1.7 DELIMITATIONS

This study is geographically limited to Dunkwa-on-Offin in the Upper Denkyira East

Municipality. It focuses on assessing the health impacts of water contamination linked to

galamsey activities during a specified period. The scope includes public health outcomes and

community practices related to water safety.

1.8 LIMITATIONS

Potential limitations include difficulties in accessing reliable data, biases in self-reported

information from community members, and constraints in generalizing findings beyond the study

area due to its localized focus.

1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS

This chapter provides the operational definition of words used in this study.

Galamsey: Informal, small-scale mining operations, often conducted illegally.

Waterborne Diseases: Illnesses caused by pathogens transmitted through contaminated water,

including cholera and hepatitis.

Vulnerable Populations: Groups at higher risk of adverse health outcomes, such as children,

pregnant women, and the elderly.

1.10 ORGANIZATION OF CHAPTERS

This research will be structured into five sections. Chapter One will consist of the background to

the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions, significance of

the study, delimitations, limitations, definition of terms and organization of the chapters.

Chapter Two of the study will concentrate on the literature review with more light thrown on the

research results of other writers linked to the issue under study.

Chapter Three will examine the research methods to be used for the study. It will include the

research design, sampling procedures, population, data collection instrument and methods for

data collection and analysis.

The fourth chapter will deal with the results as well as the discussion of the findings of the study.

With the final chapter comprising; the summary, conclusions and recommendations based on the

results of the study. Suggestions for further studies will also be covered.

CHAPTER TWO (2)

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Waterborne diseases remain a persistent and grave public health concern worldwide, particularly

in developing regions where access to clean water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities is

inadequate. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that over 1.7 billion cases of

diarrhoeal diseases occur globally each year, with the majority attributed to unsafe water and

poor sanitation (Lin [Link]., 2022). In sub-Saharan Africa, including Ghana, the burden of water-

related diseases is further aggravated by rapid urbanization, informal settlements, poor waste

management, and, notably, environmental degradation caused by unregulated mining activities.

Dunkwa-on-Offin, a town situated along the Offin River in Ghana's Upper Denkyira East

Municipality, is a prime example of the challenges posed by illegal small-scale mining, locally

referred to as "galamsey." This review focuses on the prevalence of waterborne diseases in

Dunkwa-on-Offin, Ghana, and investigates the correlation between water contamination and

disease incidence. Given the scarcity of direct data for Dunkwa-on-Offin, this review also draws

on regional studies and similar contexts within Ghana to provide a comprehensive understanding

of the issue

2.2 Prevalence Of Waterborne Diseases

Waterborne diseases are a major cause of morbidity and mortality globally. According to the

WHO, diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, and hepatitis A are closely associated

with poor water quality and inadequate sanitation. In West Africa, including Ghana, these

illnesses are endemic, particularly in communities with high population density, weak

infrastructure, and limited regulatory oversight. A study by Mustafa [Link]., 2024 indicates that

diarrhoeal diseases account for a significant proportion of hospital admissions in rural West

Africa, especially during the rainy season when surface water contamination is most severe.

Similarly, Lin et al., 2022 emphasized that poor water quality is responsible for heterogenous

health outcomes, including acute gastrointestinal infections and long-term exposure risks such as

cancer and developmental issues.

In Ghana, national surveillance data underscore the persistence of typhoid, cholera, and hepatitis

A in both rural and peri-urban settings. The Ghana Rapid Health Situation Assessment Report

(2020) highlighted that mining regions are particularly susceptible to waterborne disease

outbreaks, largely due to the dual impact of poor sanitation and environmental pollution.

Communities surrounding the Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality, for instance, experience recurring

outbreaks of typhoid and diarrhea (Obiri et al., 2016). These health outcomes are mirrored in

studies from Prestea Huni-Valley District, where (Wiafe et al., 2022) found that illegal mining

activities significantly contribute to environmental degradation and water contamination,

resulting in increased disease burden.

Dunkwa-on-Offin, while lacking comprehensive epidemiological data, shares key geographical

and socioeconomic characteristics with these regions. The town relies heavily on the Offin River

and other surface water sources for drinking, cooking, and bathing. Kpan, Opoku, and Anukwah
(2014) reported significant levels of heavy metal pollution in Dunkwa-on-Offin, which likely

contribute to the spread of waterborne diseases. Though specific morbidity data are scarce,

anecdotal reports and proxy indicators, such as the proximity to known galamsey zones and the

high use of untreated water sources, suggest that the prevalence of diseases like typhoid and

diarrhea is comparably high.

2.3 Water Sources And Contamination In Dunkwa-On-Offin

The primary water sources for residents of Dunkwa-on-Offin include boreholes, shallow wells,

the Offin River, and intermittent piped water systems. These sources are increasingly threatened

by illegal mining operations, which release a wide range of pollutants into the environment.

(Kpan et al., 2014) documented the presence of heavy metals such as arsenic, lead, and mercury

in both soil and water samples taken from Dunkwa-on-Offin and surrounding towns. These

contaminants are introduced into the water supply through direct discharge, runoff, and leaching

from mining pits, often with little to no regulatory oversight.

Environmental assessments conducted in other mining communities provide a valuable

comparative framework. In Prestea Huni-Valley, (Wiafe et al. 2022) found that concentrations of

arsenic, cadmium, and mercury in surface waters exceeded WHO guidelines, rendering the water

unsafe for human consumption. Similarly, Abadi, Alemayehu, and Berhe (2024) conducted a

health risk assessment in Ethiopia's Iron catchment and identified heavy metal concentrations

that posed both non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks. These findings are relevant to Dunkwa-

on-Offin, given the similarities in mining practices and environmental management challenges.

Moreover, microbial contamination is another pressing concern. Awewomom [Link] (2024)

reviewed the health hazards associated with galamsey pollutants and noted high levels of fecal
coliforms and E. coli in water samples collected near mining sites. These pathogens contribute to

a variety of gastrointestinal illnesses, especially among children and immunocompromised

individuals. The Offin River, which serves as a critical water source for the community, is

particularly vulnerable to such contamination due to the lack of protective infrastructure and the

frequent human and animal interactions along its banks.

The contamination of these water sources not only affects direct consumption but also

undermines agricultural productivity and food safety. Studies by Akuo-ko et al. (2023) have

shown that radiological and chemical pollutants from mining can persist in groundwater used for

irrigation, thereby entering the food chain. In Dunkwa-on-Offin, similar patterns are likely,

particularly in downstream farming communities that rely on river water for irrigation. These

cumulative exposures heighten the public health risks associated with waterborne diseases.

2.4 Correlation Between Water Contamination And Waterborne Diseases

The link between water contamination and the incidence of waterborne diseases is well

established in both scientific literature and public health practice. Pathogens such as Vibrio

cholerae, Salmonella typhi, and various strains of E. coli thrive in contaminated water

environments, especially where sanitation infrastructure is lacking. Epidemiological studies in

Ghana provide robust evidence of this correlation. Anoyege and Alatinga (2024), for instance,

demonstrated that communities along the Oda River, which is heavily polluted by illegal mining,

exhibit significantly higher rates of diarrhoeal diseases compared to control areas with cleaner

water.
Obiri et al. (2016) also conducted an integrated environmental and socioeconomic assessment in

Tarkwa Nsuaem and found that high levels of heavy metals in drinking water corresponded with

increased reports of water-related illnesses. The study utilized both laboratory analysis and

community health surveys, revealing that arsenic and mercury levels often surpassed WHO

safety thresholds, leading to symptoms such as abdominal pain, skin lesions, and neurological

deficits.

While no direct study from Dunkwa-on-Offin explicitly links water contamination metrics to

disease prevalence, research from similar Ghanaian settings indicates that poor water quality due

to illegal mining and inadequate sanitation directly contributes to outbreaks of waterborne

diseases. Lin et al. (2022) emphasized that the health risks from water pollution are not only

acute but also cumulative, affecting individuals over long periods through bioaccumulation and

chronic exposure. Clement [Link]., 2025 argued that the human rights of Ghanaians are infringed

upon by the state’s failure to regulate galamsey and protect citizens from its health impacts.

The interaction of chemical and microbial contaminants complicates disease etiology and

increases treatment challenges. Babuji et al. (2023) noted that heavy metals can compromise

immune function, making individuals more susceptible to infections. In such a context,

traditional public health interventions, such as vaccination and hygiene promotion, may have

limited effectiveness unless accompanied by environmental remediation and access to clean

water.

2.5 Impact Of Water Contamination On Vunerable Populations

Water contamination has a disproportionately severe impact on vulnerable populations, including

children, pregnant women, the elderly, and people with pre-existing health conditions. This

vulnerability is intensified in developing regions like Ghana, where medical infrastructure is

often inadequate and early detection of contamination-related diseases is lacking. Heavy metals

such as mercury, arsenic, lead, and cadmium, commonly released through illegal mining

activities, have been implicated in various health outcomes, especially when exposure is chronic

or occurs during critical life stages (Awewomom [Link]., 2024). Children, in particular, are more

susceptible to the toxic effects of these pollutants because of their smaller body mass, higher

relative intake of water, and developing organ systems. Prenatal exposure to contaminated water

has also been linked to birth defects, spontaneous abortions, and low birth weight (Babuji [Link],

2023).

In Ghana, communities located near galamsey sites, such as Dunkwa-on-Offin, are often situated

along rivers and streams used for domestic water needs. These populations are at high risk due to

the direct use of untreated surface water, which is often laced with sediments containing heavy

metals and biological contaminants (Kpan [Link], 2014). The prevalence of skin infections,

gastrointestinal illnesses, and respiratory diseases among residents in these communities

indicates both direct and indirect impacts of water contamination. Heavy metals like arsenic and

mercury accumulate in human tissues over time, causing long-term health complications such as

liver and kidney failure, cancer, neurotoxicity, and cardiovascular diseases (Lin [Link] 2022;

Mustafa [Link]., 2024).

For the elderly, contaminated water exacerbates chronic conditions like hypertension, diabetes,

and immune dysfunction, which are already prevalent due to aging. Similarly, for pregnant
women, even trace levels of lead or mercury in drinking water can lead to miscarriages or

irreversible damage to the fetus (Kazapoe [Link], 2021). Research in Tarkwa and other mining

towns in Ghana has shown that toxic levels of heavy metals in community water sources far

exceed WHO guidelines, posing serious risks for all residents, especially those already

biologically vulnerable (Obiri et al., 2016).

The socio-economic dynamics in these communities also play a role. Due to economic

constraints and lack of alternatives, the poor are often forced to continue using contaminated

water despite knowing the risks. According to Anoyege and Alatinga (2024), agricultural

workers in mining-affected areas reported persistent illnesses yet had no means to seek safer

water sources or afford medical treatment. This intersection of environmental, biological, and

socio-economic vulnerability creates a cycle of exposure and illness that disproportionately

affects the most marginalized.

Efforts to mitigate the impacts on vulnerable populations are hampered by weak policy

enforcement, limited public education, and fragmented health systems. While some NGOs have

initiated water treatment interventions, these efforts are sporadic and underfunded. Without

comprehensive public health policies that prioritize vulnerable groups in environmental risk

management, water contamination will continue to deepen health inequities in communities like

Dunkwa-on-Offin.

2.6 Knowledge, Attitudes And Practices Regarding Water Safety And Disease Prevention
Understanding community knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) regarding water safety and

disease prevention is critical for designing effective interventions. Numerous studies in Ghana

highlight a persistent gap between awareness of water contamination and the adoption of safe

practices. While residents in mining communities often recognize that their water sources are

unsafe, structural and behavioral barriers prevent them from taking necessary precautions (Obiri

et al., 2016.). For instance, although boiling water is a known method for microbial

decontamination, the practice is not widespread due to fuel costs, time constraints, and

inconsistent public health messaging (Fening [Link], 2022).

In Dunkwa-on-Offin, anecdotal and field-based evidence suggests a high level of awareness

about pollution in the Offin River and local wells, yet community members frequently continue

to use these sources for drinking, cooking, and bathing. According to Akuo-ko et al. (2023),

similar communities in the Eastern Region of Ghana reported that nearly 70% of residents knew

their water sources were contaminated, but less than 30% used any form of filtration or

treatment. This disconnect is often explained by cultural practices, mistrust in government health

warnings, and the normalization of galamsey-related environmental degradation.

Health education campaigns in affected areas tend to be infrequent, under-resourced, or overly

technical, making them ineffective at changing community behavior. Bhat, Ravi, Tian, and Singh

(2024) argue that communication strategies need to be tailored to local knowledge systems and

economic realities. For example, residents are more likely to respond to visual demonstrations of

water contamination or community storytelling approaches than to printed leaflets in English.

Furthermore, traditional beliefs sometimes compete with scientific explanations, as some

residents attribute illness to spiritual causes rather than water quality, undermining public health

advice (Meutia [Link], 2023).

Another major barrier to safe practices is infrastructure. Even when communities are willing to

treat water or switch to safer sources, they often lack access to affordable filtration systems or

boreholes. According to Mensah et al. (2015), less than 40% of households in mining regions

have consistent access to treated water. The rest rely on untreated river or rainwater, especially

during the dry season when boreholes may dry up. This reliance is further entrenched by poverty

and the absence of strong institutional support to develop sustainable alternatives.

Moreover, the presence of mining operations, both legal and illegal contributes to community

demoralization. Many residents feel powerless to stop pollution or demand compensation. This

fatalism diminishes the incentive to engage in preventive behaviors, reinforcing a culture of

resignation and dependence (Botchwey & Crawford, 2018). Without empowering communities

through participatory water governance and sustained behavior change programs, health risks

from water contamination will persist.

In conclusion, KAP studies consistently show that improving community resilience to

waterborne disease requires more than just awareness. It demands integrated interventions that

combine infrastructure, culturally relevant education, community involvement, and policy

enforcement. In Dunkwa-on-Offin and similar mining areas, a shift from reactive to preventive

public health strategies is urgently needed.

2.7 Conclusion
Waterborne diseases remain a critical health issue in Ghana, with mining-affected communities

like Dunkwa-on-Offin at heightened risk due to water contamination. While direct data for

Dunkwa-on-Offin are scarce, evidence from similar contexts strongly suggests a high prevalence

of diseases such as typhoid and diarrheal illnesses linked to microbial and chemical water

pollution. Addressing these challenges requires integrated interventions targeting water quality

improvement, sanitation, hygiene, and environmental management, especially in mining-

impacted areas.

CHAPTER THREE (3)

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

This study adopts a descriptive cross-sectional survey design with a quantitative approach. This

design is appropriate for assessing the prevalence and correlation of waterborne diseases and

water contamination at a specific point in time among the residents of Dunkwa-on-Offin and its

adjoining communities (Creswell, 2016). The design allows for the systematic collection of data

on community exposure to contaminated water sources and the associated health outcomes.

3.2 Study Area

The study is conducted in Dunkwa-on-Offin, located in the Upper Denkyira East Municipality in

the Central Region of Ghana. This area lies along the Offin River, which has been significantly

impacted by illegal small-scale mining activities (galamsey), a major source of water pollution.

3.3 Target Population

The target population includes:

 Residents of Dunkwa-on-Offin and nearby communities located close to active or

abandoned galamsey sites.

 Individuals who depend on natural water sources (rivers, streams, boreholes, wells) that

are potentially contaminated by galamsey operations.

 Vulnerable groups such as children, the elderly, and pregnant women, who are

particularly susceptible to waterborne diseases

3.4 Sample Size Determination

The sample size for this study was calculated using Cochran’s formula for sample size

determination: n₀ = (Z² × p × (1 - p)) / e²

Where:

 n₀ = required sample size

 Z = Z-score (1.96 for 95% confidence level)

 p = estimated proportion of the population exposed (30%)

 e = margin of error (5%)

Considering an estimated population based on the 2021 Population and Housing Census and a

10% non-response rate, the calculated sample size is 384 respondents (Ghana Statistical

Service, 2021).

3.5 Sampling Technique

The study employs simple random sampling to ensure that each member of the population has an

equal chance of being selected. Households located within a predetermined radius of mining sites

near the Offin River were identified, and participants were randomly selected from this sampling

frame. This method enhances the representativeness and reliability of the findings (Creswell,

2016).

3.6 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS

A structured survey questionnaire was used to collect data from the residents. The questionnaire

contained closed-ended questions and some Likert (1 to 5) type questions. The questionnaire included

questions on demographic characteristics of residents; sources of water and usage, knowledge,

awareness and perceptions (KAP) and practices on water contamination.

RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING OF FIELD ASSISTANT

The researchers personally administered the survey instruments.

3.7: DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES

Data was collected from respondents using a google form and also a structured questionnaire

which was self-completed by respondents in order to avoid disruption to their schedule.

DATA ANALYSIS
The data collected was exported and converted into Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

(SPSS) version 20 for analysis. Descriptive statistics (such as frequencies, means and standard

deviations) was used to describe the demographic characteristics of the respondents. We

explored relationship and associations among study variables. All statistical tests performed was

at a significance level of p < 0.05.

DATA MANAGEMENT

All the structured questionnaires were checked for accuracy, completeness and legibility, before

they were entered into an electronic data-capturing tool which was developed using EpiData 3.1

software. The data screens had in-build checks to minimize data entry errors. Each completed

questionnaire was assigned a unique identification number for quality control and recall

purposes. All questionnaires were kept safely in a locker during the data cleaning and data

analysis phases, after which the hard copies were destroyed. The collected google forms data was

merged with the captured data from the structured paper questionnaires. The final electronic data

will be stored for a duration of 2-3 years on google drive cloud storage and will be accessible to

only the principal investigator. This is to allow for ample time for publication and report writing,

after which it would be wiped off from the storage device

3.12: ETHICAL CONSIDERATION

Informed Consent was sought from each individual respondent. Participants were adequately

informed about their right to refuse to participate in the study and opt out at any time if they

wished to do so. The researchers took steps to minimize unnecessary distraction and disruption

of work as well as strictly adhered to all Covid-19 protocols. No identifiable personal

information such as name, designation or position held by respondents was collected in order to
ensure anonymity and confidentiality. All information collected was used only for the purposes

of this research.

CHAPTER FOUR (4)

4.0: RESULTS

This study seeks to assess the Impact of Water Contamination from Galamsey Activities on

Public Health in Dunkwa-on-Offin in the upper Denkyira East Municipality. This chapter

presents results from the study carried out at Dunkwa-on-offin and discusses the findings based

on the data from the study

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