College of Engineering

Electronics and Communications Department

Electronics Physics
First Class

Engineering Materials Properties

Lecture 1

[Link]. Safa Abdulwahid

2025
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

1.1 Material Classification

There are different ways of classifying materials. One way is to describe

five groups or families:

 Metals and Alloys

 Ceramics
 glasses
 Polymers (plastics)
 Semiconductors
 Composite materials

1.1.1 Metals and Alloys

Metals include aluminum, magnesium, zinc, cast iron. An alloy is a metal

that contains additions of one or more metals like steel, titanium alloy…etc.
In general, metals have good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals
and alloys have relatively high strength, high stiffness, ductility or
formability, and shock resistance. They are particularly useful for structural
or load-bearing applications. Although pure metals are occasionally used,
alloys provide improvement in a particular desirable property or permit
better combinations of properties.

Fig.1: Metals
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Fig.2: Examples of alloys

1.1.2 Ceramics

Ceramics can be defined as inorganic crystalline materials. Sand and rocks

are examples of naturally occurring ceramics. Advanced ceramics are
materials made by refining naturally occurring ceramics and other special
processes. Advanced ceramics are used in sensors and capacitors, wireless
communications, inductors, and electrical insulation.

1.1.3 Glasses

Glass is an amorphous material, (often, but not always), derived from a

molten liquid. The term “amorphous” refers to materials that do not have a
regular, periodic arrangement of atoms. The fiber optics industry is
founded on optical fibers based on high purity silica glass. Glasses are also
used in houses, cars, computer and television screens, and hundreds of
other applications. Glasses can be thermally treated (tempered) to make
them stronger.
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Fig.3: Fiber optics

1.1.4 Polymers

Polymers are typically organic materials. They are produced using a

process known as polymerization. Polymers include rubber (elastomers)
and many types of adhesives. Polymers typically are good electrical and
thermal insulators. Although they have lower strength, polymers have a
very good strength-to-weight ratio. They are typically not suitable for use
at high temperatures. Many polymers have very good resistance to
corrosive chemicals. Polymers have thousands of applications ranging from
bulletproof vests, compact disks (CDs), ropes, and liquid crystal displays
(LCDs) to clothes and coffee cups.

Fig.4: Polymers
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

1.1.5 Semiconductors
Silicon, germanium, are semiconductors such as those used in computers
and electronics are part of a broader class of materials known as electronic
materials. The electrical conductivity of semiconducting materials is
between that of ceramic insulators and metallic conductors. In some
semiconductors, the level of conductivity can be controlled to enable
electronic devices such as transistors, diodes, etc., that are used to build
integrated circuits. In many applications, we need large single crystals of
semiconductors. These are grown from molten materials.

Fig.5: (a) Diode, (b) Transistor, (c) Integrated circuit(IC)

1.1.6 Composite Materials

The main idea in developing composites is to blend the properties of

different materials. These are formed from two or more materials,
producing properties not found in any single material. Concrete, plywood,
and fiberglass are examples of composite materials. Advanced aircraft and
aerospace vehicles rely heavily on composites such as carbon fiber-
reinforced. Sports equipment such as bicycles, golf clubs, tennis rackets,
and the like also make use of different kinds of composite materials that are
light and stiff.
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

1.2 Material properties

1.2.1 Mechanical properties

there are many mechanical properties as:

a) Strength : It is defined as resistance by which the material opposes the

deformation. The maximum load withstood by a specimen of the metal
before failure is called ultimate strength. The load acting per unit area of
specimen is called stress and the deformation produced is called strain

b) Stiffness: Is defined as its resistance to elastic deformation or it’s the

slop of the hoocks law .

c) Hardness: It is the property of which material resist the penetration of

other bodies into it.

d) Toughness: It is the ability of a material to resist fracture under impact

load ,or its the area under the stress-strain curve tough materials can
withstand large deformation together with high stress without fracture.

Fig.6: Mechanical properties

1.2.2 Thermal properties

Thermal property refers to the response of a material to the application of

heat. As a solid absorbs energy in the form of heat, its temperature rises
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

and its dimensions increase. Heat capacity, thermal expansion, and thermal
conductivity are properties that are often critical in the practical utilization
of solids.

a) Heat capacity: A solid material, when heated, experiences an increase in

temperature signifying that some energy has been absorbed. Heat capacity
is a property that is indicative of a material’s ability to absorb heat from the
external surroundings; it represents the amount of energy required to
produce a unit temperature rise.

b) Thermal expansion: Most solid materials expand upon heating and

contract when cooled.

c) Thermal conductivity: Thermal conduction is the phenomenon by

which heat is transported from high- to low-temperature regions of a
substance. The property that characterizes the ability of a material to
transfer heat is the thermal conductivity.

1.2.3 Chemical properties

Chemical properties describe how a material reacts chemically with its

environment, such as resistance to corrosion or its ability to withstand
harsh chemicals.

1.2.4 Electrical properties

Without electrical conduction we would lack the easy access to light, heat,
power, control and communication that today we take for granted. Metals
conduct well copper and aluminum are the best of those that are
affordable. But conduction is not always a good thing. Fuse boxes, switch
casings, all require insulators. Resistivity, the inverse of electrical
conductivity. Most plastics and glass have high resistivity they are used as
insulators.
 College of Engineering

Electronics and Communications Department

Electronics Physics
First Class

Atomic, Thomson Model of The Atom

Lecture 2

[Link]. Safa Abdulwahid

2025
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

2.1 Introduction
Elements are made from atoms by examining atomic structure. An atom
cannot be broken down further without changing the chemical nature of
the substance. e. For example, if you have 1 ton, 1 gram or 1 atom of
oxygen, all of these units have the same properties. We can break down the
atom of oxygen into smaller particles, however, when we do the atom loses
its chemical properties. For example, if you have 100 watches, or one
watch, they all behave like watches and tell time. You can dismantle one of
the watches: take the back off, take the batteries out, peer inside and pull
things out. However, now the watch no longer behaves like a watch.

2.2 Atomic Structure

Atoms are made up of 3 types of particles electrons , protons and neutrons.
These particles have different properties:

1. Electrons are tiny, very light particles that have a negative electrical
charge (-).
2. Protons are much larger and heavier than electrons and have the
opposite charge, protons have a positive charge.
3. Neutrons are large and heavy like protons, however neutrons have no
electrical charge.
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Fig.1: Structure of atom

Each atom is made up of a combination of these particles. Let's look at one

type of atom:

Fig.2 : hydrogen atom

The atom above, made up of one proton and one electron, is called
hydrogen (H). The proton and electron stay together because just like two
magnets, the opposite electrical charges attract each other. The particles in
an atom are not still. The electron is constantly spinning around the center
of the atom (called the nucleus which consists of the protons and
neutrons). The force of the spinning electron keeps the two particles from
coming into contact with each other much as the earth's rotation keeps it
from plunging into the sun.
 Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

2.3 Atomic Models

Several atomic models about atomic structure have been advanced over
the years after obtaining quantitative measurements on electrons and
positive rays. These models include the models proposed by Sir J.J.
Thomson, Rutherford, and modern atomic model.

2.3.1 Thomson Atomic Model

J.J. Thomson proposed his Atomic Model in 1904 after discovering the
electron in 1897 through his well-known cathode ray experiment. This
model, commonly called the "Plum Pudding Model," describes the atom as
a positively charged sphere with negatively charged electrons scattered
throughout, resembling plums within a pudding.

Fig.3: Thomson’s Atomic Model

Postulates of Thomson’s Atomic Model

1. Neutrality of the Atom: An atom is overall electrically neutral.

2. Positive and Negative Charges: The atom has a positive charge that
balances the negative charge of the electrons.
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

3. Uniform Distribution of Positive Charge: This positive charge is

uniformly distributed throughout the atom.

4. Electrons Embedded in Positive Mass: Thomson proposed that

negatively charged electrons, referred to as corpuscles, are
embedded within a homogeneous sphere of positive charge.

5. Freedom of Electron Movement: Electrons are free to move within

the atom.

6. Stable Orbits: According to Gauss's Law, electrons maintain stable

orbits. When passing through the positively charged mass, the forces
exerted on them are counterbalanced by the positive charge
surrounding their paths.

Limitations of Thomson's atomic model

 It failed to explain how the positive charge holds the electrons inside
the atom.

 It failed to explain the stability of an atom.

 This theory did not mention anything about the nucleus of an atom.

 It could not account for the results of later experiments by

Rutherford about the distribution of mass.
 College of Engineering

Electronics and Communications Department

Electronics Physics
First Class

Rutherford Model of the Atom

Lecture 3

[Link]. Safa Abdulwahid

2025
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

3.1 Rutherford Atomic Model

Ernest Rutherford, a British scientist conducted an experiment and based
on the observations of this experiment, he explained the atomic structure
of elements and proposed Rutherford’s Atomic Model.

3.2 Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment

Rutherford conducted an experiment by bombarding a thin sheet of gold

with α-particles and then studied the trajectory of these particles after
their interaction with the gold foil.

Rutherford, in his experiment, directed high energy streams of α-particles

from a radioactive source at a thin sheet (100 nm thickness) of gold. In
order to study the deflection caused to the α-particles, he placed a
fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around the thin gold foil. Rutherford made
certain observations that contradicted Rutherford Atomic Model.

Fig.4: Rutherford's experiment

Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

3.3 Observations of Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering

Experiment
The observations made by Rutherford led him to conclude that:

1. A major fraction of the α-particles bombarded towards the gold sheet

passed through the sheet without any deflection, and hence most of
the space in an atom is empty.

2. Some of the α-particles were deflected by the gold sheet by very

small angles, and hence the positive charge in an atom is not
uniformly distributed. The positive charge in an atom is
concentrated in a very small volume.

3. Very few of the α-particles were deflected back, that is only a few α-
particles had nearly 180o angle of deflection. So the volume
occupied by the positively charged particles in an atom is very
small as compared to the total volume of an atom.

3.4 The atomic structure of elements

According to the Rutherford atomic model:

1. The first postulation about electrons was that they are in orbit
around the central nucleus just as planets round the sun.
2. The atom is a tiny, massive and positively charged nucleus around
which the negative electrons orbit.
3. The electron is revolving in a circular orbit with a constant velocity.
4. The system is now subjected to two forces. Acting inwards will be
electrostatic attraction given by Coulomb’s law.
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Fig.5: Rutherford Atomic Model

A) Electrostatic (Attractive) Force

According to Coulomb’s law ( states that the electrostatic force between

two point charges at rest is directly proportional to the product of the
magnitude of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them) , the attractive force between the positively
charged nucleus and a negatively charged electron is:

where:

 F: electrostatic (Coulomb) force

 Z: atomic number (charge of nucleus = +Ze)
 e: charge of electron = C
 r: radius of electron’s orbit

 : permittivity of free space =

Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

B) Centrifugal Force (for Circular Orbit)

For the electron to stay in orbit, the centrifugal force balances the
electrostatic attraction:

In Rutherford’s model:

C) Electron Energy (Potential Energy)

The electrostatic potential energy of the electron is:

(Negative sign because the force is attractive.)

D) Kinetic Energy of the Electron

From the balance of forces:

So
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

E) Total Energy of the Electron

Substitute values:

Example (1)

An electron revolves around the nucleus of a hydrogen atom in a circular

orbit of radius r= m, if the electron’s mass is m=
Kg, calculate the centrifugal force acting on the electron.

Solution:
Centrifugal Force Formula

But in a stable orbit, this force is balanced by the electrostatic (Coulomb)

force:

Hence, we can first find the electron’s speed ν

Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

the Centrifugal Force is:

Example (2)

An electron is moving in a circular orbit around a nucleus with charge Z=1, at a

radius : r= , calculate the kinetic energy of the electron.

Solution:

Given:

 Z=1
 r=
 e= C
 ε0=

K≈
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Example (3)

For a helium ion (He+)where Z=2, calculate the kinetic energy, potential
energy, and total energy of the electron when it is at a radius: r=

Solution:

kinetic energy

Potential Energy

U=−2K

Total Energy

=4.3612 = -4.3612
 College of Engineering

Electronics and Communications Department

Electronics Physics
First Class

Bohr’s atomic model

Lecture 4

[Link]. Safa Abdulwahid

2025
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

4.1 Introduction
The Bohr model of the atom was proposed by Neil Bohr in 1913. It came
into existence with the modification of Rutherford’s model of an atom.
Rutherford’s model introduced the nuclear model of an atom, in which he
explained that a nucleus (positively charged) is surrounded by negatively
charged electrons.

4.2 Limitation of Rutherford's Atomic Model

 Rutherford proposed that the electrons revolve around the nucleus
in fixed paths called orbits. According to Maxwell, accelerated
charged particles emit electromagnetic radiations and hence an
electron revolving around the nucleus should emit electromagnetic
radiation. This radiation would carry energy from the motion of the
electron which would come at the cost of shrinking of orbits.
Ultimately the electrons would collapse in the nucleus.
 Calculations have shown that as per the Rutherford model, an
electron would collapse into the nucleus in less than 10-8 seconds. So
the Rutherford model was not in accordance with Maxwell’s theory
and could not explain the stability of an atom.
4.3 Bohr's atomic model
Bohr theory modified the atomic structure model by explaining that
electrons move in fixed orbitals (shells) and not anywhere in between and
he also explained that each orbit (shell) has a fixed energy, but the
attraction of the nucleus bends its path so that it moves with a constant
velocity v in a perfect circle of radius r around the nucleus.
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Fig.1: Bohr's atomic model

The situation and the mathematics are very similar to that of a planet
arcing round the sun. The major difference is that instead of the force of
gravity there is an electrostatic force of attraction FE between the proton
and the electron described by coulomb' law:

where:

 F: electrostatic (Coulomb) force

 Z: atomic number (charge of nucleus = +Ze)
 e: charge of electron = C
 r: radius of electron’s orbit
 : permittivity of free space =

The movement of an electron in its orbit would create a centrifugal force,

which gives it a tendency to fly away from the nucleus. This force is given
by:
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

An electron has two energies potential and kinetic energy:

And

If these are added together, we obtain a simple formula for the total energy
of the electron.

In order to predict the right frequencies for the lines in the hydrogen
spectrum, Bohr found that he had to assume that the quantity (called
angular momentum) , mvr, can only take on certain values, which are
whole-number multiples of h/2π;
 Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

If the equation 5 substituted in kinetic energy law:

In order to calculate the radius of orbit by this equation:

4.4 Assumption of Bohr's theory

i. The atom has a central massive core nucleus where all the protons and
neutrons are present. The size of the nucleus is very small.
ii. The electron in an atom revolves around the nucleus in certain discrete
orbits. Such orbits are known as stable orbits or non – radiating or
stationary orbits.
iii. The force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron is equal to
centrifugal force of the moving electron. Force of attraction towards
nucleus = centrifugal force
iv. An electron can move only in those permissive orbits in which the
angular momentum (mvr) of the electron is an integral multiple of h /
2. Thus,

Where, m = mass of the electron, r = radius of the electronic orbit, v =

velocity of the electron in its orbit.
 Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

v. The angular momentum can be:

This principal is known as quantization of angular momentum. In the above

equation ‘n’ is any integer which has been called as principal quantum
number. It can have the values n=1,2,3, ------- (from the nucleus). Various
energy levels are designed as K(n=1), L(n=2), M(n=3) ------- etc. Since the
electron present in these orbits is associated with some energy, these
orbits are called energy levels.

vi. The emission or absorption of radiation by the atom takes place when an

electron jumps from one stationary orbit to another.

Fig.2: The emission or absorption of radiation by the atom

vii. The radiation is emitted or absorbed as a single quantum (photon)

whose energy h is equal to the difference in energy E of the electron
in the two orbits involved. Thus, h  E Where ‘h’ =Planck’s constant.
Hence the spectrum of the atom will have certain fixed frequency.
viii. The lowest energy state (n=1) is called the ground state. When an
electron absorbs energy, it gets excited and jumps to an outer orbit. It
has to fall back to a lower orbit with the release of energy.
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Example (1)
Use the Bohr's theory to calculate the first orbit radius of hydrogen atom.

Solution:

1.

2.

= 2.645 m

3.

Note: for another orbit you can use this equation

Example (2)

Use the Bohr's theory to calculate the first , second and third orbit radius
for hydrogen atom.

Solution:
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

4.5 The velocity of electron

 for hydrogen
 Unit of speed =

Example (3)

Use the Bohr's theory to calculate the velocity of electron in the first,
second and third orbit for hydrogen atom.

Solution:

=0.219 m/s

This equation below used for other atoms like He and Li

4.6 Energy of an Electron in Hydrogen Atom

As we explained previously, the energy of an electron moving in one
particular energy level of the hydrogen atom in the Bohr models can be
calculated by the total energy or the sum of the kinetic energy and the
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

potential energy of an electron in physics and chemical science. The total

energy for the nth level of the hydrogen atom in Bohr model,

Example (4)

Use the Bohr's theory to calculate the energy of electron in first, second and
third orbit for hydrogen atom.

Solution:

Given:

 e= C
 : permittivity of free space =


m
Electronics Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

4.7 Limitation of Bohr's theory

1. Bohr’s theory has successfully explained the observed spectra for
hydrogen atom and hydrogen like ions (e.g. He+ , Li2+, Be3+ etc.). it
cannot explain the spectral series for the atoms having a large
number of electrons.
2. According to Bohr, the radiation results when an electron jumps from
one energy orbit to another energy orbit, but how this radiation
occurs is not explained by Bohr.

3. Bohr’s theory has no explanation for Zeeman Effect. Zeeman Effect: If

a substance which gives a line emission spectrum is placed in a
magnetic field, the lines of the spectrum get split up into a number of
closely spaced lines.
4. The main objection to Bohr's model was raised by Heisenberg's
uncertainty principle. According to Bohr's model, electron move
around the nucleus in a welldefined orbit and hence its position and
moment can be determined simultaneously. But that’s impossible
and against the Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. Heisenberg's
uncertainty principle It is impossible to determine simultaneously
the exact position and moment of a small moving particle like an
electron.

5. Bohr's model could not estimate the periodic properties of the

elements.
Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

College of Engineering

Electronics and Communications Department

Electronics Physics
First Class

The Hydrogen Spectrum

Lecture 5

[Link]. Safa Abdulwahid

2025

1
5.1 Introduction
Hydrogen, being the simplest atom (one proton, one electron), provides the
clearest experimental evidence for quantized energy levels. Spectral lines
of hydrogen are not random; they appear at very specific wavelengths.
These wavelengths correspond exactly to the energy differences between
Bohr’s allowed orbits. Thus, the hydrogen spectrum serves as direct proof
of quantization in atoms.

5.2 The Hydrogen Spectrum

 A line spectrum contains only certain discreet wavelengths of light.
Each element gives a characteristic line spectrum, the lines arising
from electron transitions within the atom.
 With one electron and one proton, hydrogen is the simplest element
and gives the simplest line spectrum.
 The spectral lines of hydrogen correspond to particular jumps of the
electron between energy levels. When an electron jumps from a
higher energy level to a lower, a photon of a specific wavelength is
emitted. The spectral lines are grouped into series according to
(the number of the level at which the transition terminates) as shown
in the figure below:

2
Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Fig.1: Electron transitions inside a Hydrogen atom

The transitions of the electron in the hydrogen atom result in the

following spectral series:

1. Lyman Series ( =1)

Theodore Lyman founded the series between 1906 and 1914. According
to Bohr’s concept, the Lyman series appears when electrons shift from
higher energy levels ( = 2,3,4,5,6,…) to = 1 energy state. The
wavelengths of the Lyman series are all in the ultraviolet range.

2. Balmer Series ( =2)

The series was discovered in the year 1885 by Johann Balmer. Balmer
series is displayed when electron transition takes place from higher
energy states( =3,4,5,6,7,…) to =2 energy state. All the wavelength of
Balmer series falls in visible part of electromagnetic spectrum (400nm
to 740nm).

3
Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

3. Paschen Series ( =3)

The series was first observed in 1908 by German physicist Friedrich

Paschen. Paschen series is displayed when electron transition takes place
from higher energy states( =4,5,6,7,8,…) to =3 energy state. All the
wavelength of the Paschen series falls in the Infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

4. Brackett Series ( =4)

The series was first observed in 1922 by American physicist Friedrich

Sumner Brackett. Brackett series is displayed when electron transition
takes place from higher energy states( =5,6,7,8,9…) to =4 energy state.
All the wavelength of the Brackett series falls in the Infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

5. Pfund Series ( =5)

The series was first observed during the year 1924 by August Harman
Pfund. Pfund series is displayed when electron transition takes place from
higher energy states( =6,7,8,9,10,…) to =5 energy state. All the
wavelength of Pfund series falls in Infrared region of the electromagnetic
spectrum.

6. Humphreys Series ( =6)

The series was first observed in 1953 by American Physicist Curtis J

Humphreys. Humphreys series is displayed when electron transition takes
place from higher energy states ( =7,8,9,10,11…) to =6 energy state. All
the wavelength of the Humphreys series falls in the Infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

4
Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Fig.2: Spectrum of Hydrogen along with spectral series and respective wavelengths.

5.3 Rydberg Formula for Spectral Series

The Rydberg Formula is a fundamental equation used to calculate the
wavelengths of spectral lines in hydrogen and hydrogen-like atoms.

General Form of the Rydberg Equation

Where:

 λ: wavelength of the emitted or absorbed photon

 : Rydberg constant for hydrogen =1.097373×
 : final energy level (lower level)
 : initial energy level (higher level)
 > for emission
 < for absorption

Note:

* Each spectral series has fixed .

5
Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

* ranges from to ∞.

Example (1)

Find the wavelength for the transition:

=4 → =2

Solution:

Balmer series

Example (2)

Find the wavelength of the photon emitted when the electron transitions
from:

=3 → =1

Solution:

6
Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

5.4 Energy of Each Energy Level in the Hydrogen Atom

According to Bohr’s Model, the energy of an electron in the

Where:

 : energy of the level

 n: principal quantum number (1, 2, 3, …)
 13.6 eV: ionization energy of hydrogen (energy needed to remove the
electron from n=1 to infinity)

Example (3)

What is the energy difference between :

n=3 → n=2?

7
Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Solution:

Energy of level n=1:

Energy of level n=3:

Energy difference between two levels:

5.5 The Wave-Mechanics Model:

Although Bohr theory was consistent well with the atoms containing one
electron such as hydrogen as well as ions of hydrogen, it was found that
this theory can not be applied to the spectrum of complex atoms consisting

8
Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

of two electrons or more, it was also found that some spectral lines
decompose into close multiple lines known as (fine structure).

This fine structure can not be explained by Bohr theory which assumed the
existence of only one orbit for each quantum number (n) while the fine
structure refers to the existence of several levels with slightly different
energy for each quantum number (n). Schrodinger has been able to develop
a more comprehensive theory during the period 1925-1926 under the title
(The Wave-Mechanics). It has been found that the electrons that have the
same principal quantum number (n) clustered around the nucleus in an
atomic shell.

n 1 2 3 4 5 …
Atomic
K L M N O
shell

This atomic shell contains different energy levels, which introduced a new
concept that is the presence of the atomic subshell.

ℓ 0 1 2 3 ….
Atomic
s p d f
sub-shell

5.6 Energy Levels Diagram of Multi-electron Atoms:

An atom containing more than one electron is called a multi-electron atom

and a standard energy level diagram for such types of atoms. Now, we
examine the sequence of filling up the electrons in various orbitals in the
different energy levels of multi-electron atoms:

9
Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

(i) First Principal Energy Level (n = 1): This has only one orbital
i.e., 1 s-orbital and accommodate only two electrons.
(ii) Second Principal Energy Level (n = 2): This has two orbitals 2s
and 2p. 2s-orbtial has only one sub sub-shell and can
accommodate only two electrons. 2p orbital has three sub sub-
shells and can accommodate at the most 6 electrons and each
sub-sub-shell cannot accommodate more than two electrons.
The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated
in n = 2 energy level is 8 and the total number of maximum
electrons that can be accommodated up to the second principal
energy level is 10 (2 in n = 1 level and 8 in n = 2 level).
However, the second principal energy level (n = 2) will only
start accommodating electrons only after the first principal
energy (n = 1) is completely filled up.
(iii) Third Principal Energy Level (n = 3): This has three orbitals: 3s,
3p and 3d orbitals. The 3d-orbital does not fall within the range
of n = 3 principal energy level, as the energy of the 3d-orbital is
greater that of 4s orbital in the fourth principal energy level.
This is why the 3d-orbital is filled only after filling up of 4s-
orbital of the 4th principal energy level. The sequence of filling
up 3s and 3p orbitals is as follows:
 3s orbital has only one sub-sub-shell and can accommodate
only two electrons.
 3p-orbital has three sub-sub-shells and can accommodate at
the most 6 electrons.
 Thus the maximum number of electrons filled up in the n = 3
level is 8 and the total number of electrons which can be
accommodated up to n = 3 level is 18. We must remember that

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

n = 3 level will start accommodating the electrons only after

the second principal energy level is completely filled up.
(iv) Fourth Principal Energy level (n = 4): This has four orbitals: 4s,
4p, 4d and 4f. The energy of 4d and 4f orbitals are greater than
5s and 6s orbitals respectively and they do not fall within the
range of fourth principal energy level. Obviously, n = 4 energy
level contains only 4s, 3d and 4p orbitals as shown. The
sequence of filling these orbitals is as below:
 4s-orbital: It has only one sub-shell and can accommodate only
2 electrons.
 3d-orbtial: It has 5 sub-shells and can accommodate at the
most 10 electrons but each sub-sub-shell of this orbital cannot
accommodate more than 2 electrons.
 4p-orbital: This has three sub-sub-shells and can accommodate
at the most 6 electrons.

Thus n = 4 has the maximum capacity of 18 electrons and the total

number of electrons which can be accommodated up to fourth principal
energy level is 36. We must remember that n = 4 level will start
accommodating the electrons only after the n = 3 level is completely
filled up.

Similarly, 5th, 6th and 7th principal energy levels are filled with
electrons. The maximum capacity of 5th, 6th and 7th levels are 18, 32
and 32 respectively. The sequence of filling up of the orbitals of n = 5
level is 5s, 4d and 5p; the sequence of filling up of the orbitals of n = 6
level is 6s, 4f, 5d and 6p and similarly that of n = 7 level is 7s, 5f, 6d and
7p. We must remember that each f-orbital has 7 sub-shells and each
sub-shell cannot accommodate more than 2 electrons.

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Fig.3 : energy levels of multi-electron atoms

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

College of Engineering

Electronics and Communications Department

Electronics Physics
First Class

The Hydrogen Spectrum

Lecture 5

[Link]. Safa Abdulwahid

2025

1
5.1 Introduction
Hydrogen, being the simplest atom (one proton, one electron), provides the
clearest experimental evidence for quantized energy levels. Spectral lines
of hydrogen are not random; they appear at very specific wavelengths.
These wavelengths correspond exactly to the energy differences between
Bohr’s allowed orbits. Thus, the hydrogen spectrum serves as direct proof
of quantization in atoms.

5.2 The Hydrogen Spectrum

 A line spectrum contains only certain discreet wavelengths of light.
Each element gives a characteristic line spectrum, the lines arising
from electron transitions within the atom.
 With one electron and one proton, hydrogen is the simplest element
and gives the simplest line spectrum.
 The spectral lines of hydrogen correspond to particular jumps of the
electron between energy levels. When an electron jumps from a
higher energy level to a lower, a photon of a specific wavelength is
emitted. The spectral lines are grouped into series according to
(the number of the level at which the transition terminates) as shown
in the figure below:

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Fig.1: Electron transitions inside a Hydrogen atom

The transitions of the electron in the hydrogen atom result in the

following spectral series:

1. Lyman Series ( =1)

Theodore Lyman founded the series between 1906 and 1914. According
to Bohr’s concept, the Lyman series appears when electrons shift from
higher energy levels ( = 2,3,4,5,6,…) to = 1 energy state. The
wavelengths of the Lyman series are all in the ultraviolet range.

2. Balmer Series ( =2)

The series was discovered in the year 1885 by Johann Balmer. Balmer
series is displayed when electron transition takes place from higher
energy states( =3,4,5,6,7,…) to =2 energy state. All the wavelength of
Balmer series falls in visible part of electromagnetic spectrum (400nm
to 740nm).

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

3. Paschen Series ( =3)

The series was first observed in 1908 by German physicist Friedrich

Paschen. Paschen series is displayed when electron transition takes place
from higher energy states( =4,5,6,7,8,…) to =3 energy state. All the
wavelength of the Paschen series falls in the Infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

4. Brackett Series ( =4)

The series was first observed in 1922 by American physicist Friedrich

Sumner Brackett. Brackett series is displayed when electron transition
takes place from higher energy states( =5,6,7,8,9…) to =4 energy state.
All the wavelength of the Brackett series falls in the Infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

5. Pfund Series ( =5)

The series was first observed during the year 1924 by August Harman
Pfund. Pfund series is displayed when electron transition takes place from
higher energy states( =6,7,8,9,10,…) to =5 energy state. All the
wavelength of Pfund series falls in Infrared region of the electromagnetic
spectrum.

6. Humphreys Series ( =6)

The series was first observed in 1953 by American Physicist Curtis J

Humphreys. Humphreys series is displayed when electron transition takes
place from higher energy states ( =7,8,9,10,11…) to =6 energy state. All
the wavelength of the Humphreys series falls in the Infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Fig.2: Spectrum of Hydrogen along with spectral series and respective wavelengths.

5.3 Rydberg Formula for Spectral Series

The Rydberg Formula is a fundamental equation used to calculate the
wavelengths of spectral lines in hydrogen and hydrogen-like atoms.

General Form of the Rydberg Equation

Where:

 λ: wavelength of the emitted or absorbed photon

 : Rydberg constant for hydrogen =1.097373×
 : final energy level (lower level)
 : initial energy level (higher level)
 > for emission
 < for absorption

Note:

* Each spectral series has fixed .

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

* ranges from to ∞.

Example (1)

Find the wavelength for the transition:

=4 → =2

Solution:

Balmer series

Example (2)

Find the wavelength of the photon emitted when the electron transitions
from:

=3 → =1

Solution:

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

5.4 Energy of Each Energy Level in the Hydrogen Atom

According to Bohr’s Model, the energy of an electron in the

Where:

 : energy of the level

 n: principal quantum number (1, 2, 3, …)
 13.6 eV: ionization energy of hydrogen (energy needed to remove the
electron from n=1 to infinity)

Example (3)

What is the energy difference between :

n=3 → n=2?

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Solution:

Energy of level n=1:

Energy of level n=3:

Energy difference between two levels:

5.5 The Wave-Mechanics Model:

Although Bohr theory was consistent well with the atoms containing one
electron such as hydrogen as well as ions of hydrogen, it was found that
this theory can not be applied to the spectrum of complex atoms consisting

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

of two electrons or more, it was also found that some spectral lines
decompose into close multiple lines known as (fine structure).

This fine structure can not be explained by Bohr theory which assumed the
existence of only one orbit for each quantum number (n) while the fine
structure refers to the existence of several levels with slightly different
energy for each quantum number (n). Schrodinger has been able to develop
a more comprehensive theory during the period 1925-1926 under the title
(The Wave-Mechanics). It has been found that the electrons that have the
same principal quantum number (n) clustered around the nucleus in an
atomic shell.

n 1 2 3 4 5 …
Atomic
K L M N O
shell

This atomic shell contains different energy levels, which introduced a new
concept that is the presence of the atomic subshell.

ℓ 0 1 2 3 ….
Atomic
s p d f
sub-shell

5.6 Energy Levels Diagram of Multi-electron Atoms:

An atom containing more than one electron is called a multi-electron atom

and a standard energy level diagram for such types of atoms. Now, we
examine the sequence of filling up the electrons in various orbitals in the
different energy levels of multi-electron atoms:

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

(i) First Principal Energy Level (n = 1): This has only one orbital
i.e., 1 s-orbital and accommodate only two electrons.
(ii) Second Principal Energy Level (n = 2): This has two orbitals 2s
and 2p. 2s-orbtial has only one sub sub-shell and can
accommodate only two electrons. 2p orbital has three sub sub-
shells and can accommodate at the most 6 electrons and each
sub-sub-shell cannot accommodate more than two electrons.
The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated
in n = 2 energy level is 8 and the total number of maximum
electrons that can be accommodated up to the second principal
energy level is 10 (2 in n = 1 level and 8 in n = 2 level).
However, the second principal energy level (n = 2) will only
start accommodating electrons only after the first principal
energy (n = 1) is completely filled up.
(iii) Third Principal Energy Level (n = 3): This has three orbitals: 3s,
3p and 3d orbitals. The 3d-orbital does not fall within the range
of n = 3 principal energy level, as the energy of the 3d-orbital is
greater that of 4s orbital in the fourth principal energy level.
This is why the 3d-orbital is filled only after filling up of 4s-
orbital of the 4th principal energy level. The sequence of filling
up 3s and 3p orbitals is as follows:
 3s orbital has only one sub-sub-shell and can accommodate
only two electrons.
 3p-orbital has three sub-sub-shells and can accommodate at
the most 6 electrons.
 Thus the maximum number of electrons filled up in the n = 3
level is 8 and the total number of electrons which can be
accommodated up to n = 3 level is 18. We must remember that

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

n = 3 level will start accommodating the electrons only after

the second principal energy level is completely filled up.
(iv) Fourth Principal Energy level (n = 4): This has four orbitals: 4s,
4p, 4d and 4f. The energy of 4d and 4f orbitals are greater than
5s and 6s orbitals respectively and they do not fall within the
range of fourth principal energy level. Obviously, n = 4 energy
level contains only 4s, 3d and 4p orbitals as shown. The
sequence of filling these orbitals is as below:
 4s-orbital: It has only one sub-shell and can accommodate only
2 electrons.
 3d-orbtial: It has 5 sub-shells and can accommodate at the
most 10 electrons but each sub-sub-shell of this orbital cannot
accommodate more than 2 electrons.
 4p-orbital: This has three sub-sub-shells and can accommodate
at the most 6 electrons.

Thus n = 4 has the maximum capacity of 18 electrons and the total

number of electrons which can be accommodated up to fourth principal
energy level is 36. We must remember that n = 4 level will start
accommodating the electrons only after the n = 3 level is completely
filled up.

Similarly, 5th, 6th and 7th principal energy levels are filled with
electrons. The maximum capacity of 5th, 6th and 7th levels are 18, 32
and 32 respectively. The sequence of filling up of the orbitals of n = 5
level is 5s, 4d and 5p; the sequence of filling up of the orbitals of n = 6
level is 6s, 4f, 5d and 6p and similarly that of n = 7 level is 7s, 5f, 6d and
7p. We must remember that each f-orbital has 7 sub-shells and each
sub-shell cannot accommodate more than 2 electrons.

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Fig.3 : energy levels of multi-electron atoms

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

College of Engineering

Electronics and Communications Department

Electronics Physics
First Class

Wave Nature of Light

Lecture 6

[Link]. Safa Abdulwahid

2025

1
6.1 Introduction
Light is one of the natural phenomena that attracted human attention since
ancient times. Scientists and philosophers attempted to understand its
nature by studying vision, reflection, and refraction. In early periods, ideas
about light were mostly philosophical rather than scientific.

In the seventeenth century, two main theories were proposed to explain

the nature of light. The first was the corpuscular theory, introduced by
Isaac Newton, which described light as consisting of particles. The second
was the wave theory, proposed by Christiaan Huygens, which explained
light as a wave phenomenon.

6.2 Theories of The Nature of Light

Different theories on the nature of light have been proposed. The important
theories are as follows:

1. Newton's Corpuscular Theory

2. Huygens' Wave Theory
3. Maxwell's Electromagnetic Theory
4. Planck's Quantum Theory

1-Newton’s corpuscular theory of light is based on the following points:

 Light consists of very tiny particles known as “corpuscular”.

 These corpuscles on emission from the source of light travel in a
straight line with high velocity.
 When these particles enter the eyes, they produce an image of the
object or sensation of vision.

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

 Corpuscles of different colors have different sizes.

2-Huygens' Wave Theory proposed the rule that each point on a wave
front may be represented as a source for secondary spherical wavelets. And
each point on the wave front radiates spherical waves which interfere to
preserve it during propagation (see fig 3).

Fig.3: Huygens Principle

And the most important postulates of Huygens' wave theory of light are:

 Each point in a source of light sends out waves in all directions in a

hypothetical medium called "ETHER".
 Light is a form of energy.
 Light travels in the form of waves through space and the energy is
distributed equally in all directions
 Light waves have a very short wavelength.

3-Maxwell's Electromagnetic Theory

The electromagnetic theory of light was put forward by Clerk Maxwell.

According to this theory, light consists of fluctuating electric and magnetic
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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

fields propagating in the form of electromagnetic waves. But this theory

failed to explain the photoelectric effect.

4- Planck's Quantum Theory

Two major postulates of this theory are:-

 Radiant energy is emitted or absorbed not continuously but

discontinuously in the form of small bits of energy called quanta.
 The amount of energy associated with a quantum (or photon) of
radiation is proportional to the frequency of radiation. The theory is
put forward to explain phenomena like Black Body radiation, the
Photoelectric effect, etc.
6.3 Optics
Optics, the study of light, is conveniently divided into three fields are
geometrical optics, physical optics and quantum optics.

 Geometrical optics, which includes the study of light propagation in

straight lines, speed of light, properties of light, reflection, refraction,
dispersion.

 Physical optics, which is concerned with the nature of light and involves
primarily the theory of waves. This includes interference and diffraction.

 Quantum optics, which deals with the interaction of light with the atomic
entities of matter and which for an exact treatment requires the methods of
quantum mechanics.

6.4 Electromagnetic Waves.

Light is an electromagnetic wave that does not require a material medium

for propagation. It consists of:

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

 An oscillating electric field

 An oscillating magnetic field

The electric and magnetic fields are:

 Perpendicular to each other

 Perpendicular to the direction of propagation

Fig.1: An Electromagnetic Wave is an alternating oscillations of the Electric (E) and

Magnetic (B) fields

Wave is the repeating and periodic disturbance that travels through a

medium from one location to another location. It have two important
characteristics - wavelength and frequency. Figure (2) shows the parts of
the wave.

Wavelength: It is the distance between peaks of a wave.

Frequency: This is the number of peaks that will travel past a point in one
second. Frequency is measured in cycles per second. The term given to this
is Hertz (Hz) named after the discoverer of radio waves - Heinrich Hertz. 1
Hz = 1 cycle per second

Wave Crest: The highest part of a wave.

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 Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Wave Trough: The lowest part of a wave.

Amplitude : is how high the wave is.

Wave Period: The time it takes for two successive crests (one wavelength)
to pass a specified point. The wave period is often referenced in seconds.

Fig.2: Sine wave

The sine wave is the fundamental waveform in nature. When dealing with
light waves, we refer to the sine wave. The period (T) of the waveform is
one full 0 to 360 degree. The relationship of frequency (f) and the period is
given by the equation: f = 1 / T

6.5 Electromagnetic spectrum

 Electromagnetic (EM) radiation is classified by wavelength into
radio, microwave, infrared, the visible region we perceive as light,
ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma (γ) ray.
 The behavior of EM radiation depends on its wavelength. Higher
frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies have
longer wavelengths.
 Each color of light is associated with a different wavelength as shown
in Table 1.

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

 White light is a mixture of the colors of the rainbow; a prism splits

white light into the various colors.

Fig.3: Electromagnetic spectrum

Table 1: The range of the wavelength for colors of visible light

Color Range of wavelength (λ) nm

Violet 400 – 450
Blue 450 – 520
Green 520 – 560
Yellow 560 – 600
Orange 600 – 625
Red 625 – 700

6.6 Wave front and Rays

A wave front is a surface passing through the points of a wave that have the
same phase and amplitude. There are two types of optical waves:

1) In a plane wave all rays are parallel to each other, and one can track just
a single ray.

2) In spherical wave rays are along the radial directions and are divergent.

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Fig.2: Wave front

6.7 The Speed of light

The speed of light in vacuum is:

The wave relationship is given by:

where:

 : is the wavelength
 f is the frequency

6.8 Light rays and beams

 A ray of light is the direction along which the light energy travels,
while the beam of light is a collection of rays.
 Opaque Substances, like wood which do not allow light to pass
through them.
 Translucent materials are those through which light is
transmitted diffusely; that is, light is scattered within the interior
to the degree that objects are not clearly distinguishable when
viewed through a specimen of the material.

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 Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

 Transparent substance, like glass, which allows some of light

energy incident on it to pass through, the remainder of the energy
being absorbed or reflected.
6.9 Interaction of Light with Matter

When light falls on materials, it can behave in three main ways:

1. Reflection
2. Refraction
3. Absorption

The type of behavior depends on the nature of the material and the
properties of its surface.

1. Reflection

Reflection is the return of light to the same medium from which it came
when it strikes a boundary between two media.

Fig.3 : Reflection of light

Laws of Reflection

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

 The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.

 The incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal at the point of
incidence all lie in the same plane.

Types of Reflection

a. Regular (Specular) Reflection

 Occurs on smooth surfaces

 Produces a clear image

Examples of materials:

 Mirrors
 Polished metal surfaces
 Smooth glass

b. Diffuse (Irregular) Reflection

 Occurs on rough surfaces

 Does not produce a clear image

Examples of materials:

 Walls
 Paper
 Wood

2. Refraction

Refraction is the change in the direction of light when it passes from one
transparent medium to another with a different optical density.

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

Fig.4: Refraction of light

Refraction occur:

 When light travels between two transparent media

 When their refractive indices are different

Materials Where Refraction Occurs

 Air
 Water
 Glass
 Transparent plastics

Refractive Index

Snell’s Law (Law of Refraction)

Where:

 n: refractive index

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

 θ: angle of incidence or refraction

Direction of Refraction

 From a less dense medium to a denser medium: light bends toward

the normal
 From a denser medium to a less dense medium: light bends away
from the normal

Example (1)
A light beam travels at 1.94 × m/s in quartz. Find the index of
refraction of quartz at this wavelength?

Solution:

, c=3 ×

n= c/v

n= / = 1.55

Example (2)

A light ray travels from air (refractive index = 1) into water (1.33) with an
angle of incidence of 30°. Find the angle of refraction.

Solution:

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Electronic Physics I Asst. Lect. Safa Abulwahid

3. Absorption

Absorption is the process by which light energy is converted into another

form of energy (usually heat) within a material.

Absorption Occur:

 When light strikes a material that does not allow it to pass through or
reflect it completely

Materials That Strongly Absorb Light

 Dark-colored materials
 Opaque materials
 Unpolished metals

Examples of materials:

 Black clothing
 Coal
 Asphalt
 Black bodies

Effect of Color on Absorption

 Dark colors absorb more light

 Light colors reflect more light

13