Chapter 10

REPRODUCTIVE
BEHAVIORS
GROUP 2 REPORTING
 Understand how genes and sex
hormones development and the
formation of male and female
anatomy.

LEARNING Differentiate between the

organizing and activating effects

OBJECTIVES of sex hormones on the brain and

behavior.

Explain how hormones, brain

structure, and experiences affect
sexual behavior, parental roles,
gender identity, and sexual
orientation
 o d u l
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SEX AND HORMONES
Both sexes have a set of Müllerian ducts (precursors to female internal
structures) and Wolffian ducts (precursors to male internal structures),
as well as undifferentiated gonads.

SRY gene (sex-determining region on the Y chromosome) → triggers

development of testes (the sperm-producing organs).

→
Testes produce androgens or testosterone (hormones that are more
abundant in males) and Müllerian Inhibiting Hormone (MIH) develop
male internal and external genitals (Müllerian ducts degenerates)

* Androgens also cause the Wolffian ducts to develop into seminal

vesicles (saclike structures that store semen) and the vas deferens (a
duct from the testis into the penis).
 →
→
Females do not have the SRY gene, their gonads
develop into ovaries female structures develop
(Wolffian ducts degenerates).

The males testes produce more androgens than estrogens

(hormones that are more abundant in females), whereas the
females’ ovaries produce more estrogens than androgens.
* Prominent type of estrogen is estradiol.

* Progesterone, another predominantly female

hormone, prepares the uterus for the implantation of a
fertilized ovum and promotes the maintenance of
pregnancy.
 FIGURE 10.1 DIFFERENTIATION OF HUMAN
GENITALS
We begin life with undifferentiated structures, as shown in the center. The gonad of the
fetus, shown in blue, develops into either the ovaries, as shown on the left, or the testes, as
shown on the right. The Müllerian ducts of the fetus develop into a female’s uterus,
oviducts, and the upper part of the vagina. The Wolffian ducts of the fetus develop into a
male’s seminal vesicles (which store semen) and vas deferens, a duct from the testis into the
penis. The Müllerian ducts degenerate in males, and the Wolffian ducts degenerate in
females. (Source: Based on Netter, 1983)
 ORGANIZING EFFECTS
OF SEX HORMONES ACTIVATING EFFECTS
Occurs in sensitive period in early
OF SEX HORMONES
development (prenatal period and Temporary effects that occur when
puberty stages) and have long-lasting hormones are active.
effects. Affect sexual desire, aggression,
Responsible for formation of male or mood, and emotion.
female genitals and sex differences in Example: Hormonal changes during
→
the brain. menstrual cycle or pregnancy.
→
High testosterone male genitals, low Oxytocin is linked to activating
testosterone female genitals. effects as it acts temporarily,
Influence brain development and later increases bonding, pleasure, and
sexual behavior. relaxation during sex, childbirth, and
Example: Formation of male or female breastfeeding.
genitals before birth & Puberty changes
like body hair and voice deepening in
boys, breast growth in girls.
Sex Differences in the Brain
Se
 Sex differences in the Brain
Male and female brains show average anatomical differences in the
proportion of various regions, not just overall size.

Differences are found in cortical areas, the spinal cord, and critical
hormone centers like the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.

Female Pattern: The female hypothalamus generates a cyclic pattern

of hormone release (e.g., the human menstrual cycle).
Male Pattern: The male hypothalamus releases hormones more
steadily.
 Sex differences in the Brain
The mechanisms causing these differences vary significantly from one
brain area to another.
Hypothalamic development is influenced by sex hormones during early
life.

The Paradox (Rodent Model):

In male rodents, testosterone enters the hypothalamus and is converted
into estradiol, which acts locally to induce masculinizing effects.

In females, alpha-fetoprotein prevents circulating E2 from entering brain

cells, allowing the brain to remain feminized.
 Key Takeaways
The structural differences are highly localized, involving both hormones
and the sex-specific activity of nearly 100 genes. Because mechanisms
and genetics vary, everyone's brain is a unique mosaic.

While brain differences exist, the direct relationship between these

structural differences and specific human behavioral differences is
mostly uncertain and highly speculative (de Vries & Södersten,
2009).

Just like brain structures, most people exhibit a mixture of male-typical,

female-typical, and neutral attitudes and activities.
Sex Differences in Play
Se
 Sex Differences in Play

Observation: Boys and girls show consistent,

different preferences in play (e.g., cars/guns vs.
dolls/cooperative).

The Question: Is this difference purely due to

socialization (parents, culture) or also influenced by
prenatal biology?
 Evidence From Non-Human Primates
Monkeys, with no human socialization, show
similar preferences. Male monkeys preferred
balls and toy cars, and Female monkeys
preferred dolls (Hassett et al., 2008).

Female monkeys given prenatal

testosterone showed increased "masculine-
type" rough-and-tumble play (Wallen, 2005).

Implication: This suggests a biological

component independent of social
upbringing.
 Evidence From Human Infants
Study: 3- to 8-month-old infants were studied using eye-
tracking (Alexander et al., 2009).

Findings:
Girls looked significantly more at dolls than at toy trucks.
Boys looked at both toy types about equally.

Implication: This suggests a potential predisposition before

complex socialization or conscious toy use.
 Evidence From Human Infants
Prenatal Testosterone: Girls exposed to higher prenatal T levels
showed a slightly increased preference for "boys' toys" (Hines et al.,
2002).

Infant Testosterone: Girls with higher T levels in infancy played more

with trains; boys with higher T levels played less with dolls
(Lamminmäki et al., 2012).

Testosterone Inhibitors: Sons of mothers with high levels of

phthalates (which inhibit testosterone) showed less interest in typical
"boys' toys" (Swan et al., 2010).
 Key Takeaways: Nature or Nurture?
Hormones do not determine play, but they influence it. Prenatal
hormones may alter how a child responds to socialization.

Example: Girls with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (high prenatal T)

are less influenced by social cues, such as imitating adult women or
being told a toy is "for girls" (Hines et al., 2016).

Needless to say, Sex Differences must be understood to help us

coexist, not the other way around. While there are typical behaviors
exhibited by males and females, behaviors outside of these should not
be a taboo.
 ACTIVATING EFFECTS OF SEX HORMONES
Behavior–hormone interaction: Behaviors can also affect hormone
release (e.g., in doves, courtship behaviors trigger hormonal changes that
prepare for further stages).

Role of Oxytocin:
A pituitary hormone important for reproductive behavior.
Stimulates uterine contractions during delivery and milk release from
mammary glands.
Released by sexual pleasure, especially at orgasm.
Responsible for the post-orgasm state of calmness and relaxation
(lack of anxiety).
 MALES
Testosterone's Role in Arousal:
Essential for male sexual arousal, partly by increasing touch sensitivity in
the penis.
Binds to receptors that increase responses in key brain areas, including the
medial preoptic area (MPOA), ventromedial nucleus, and anterior
hypothalamus.

Dopamine's Mechanism:
Testosterone primes the MPOA and other areas to release dopamine.
More dopamine = higher likelihood of copulation.

Receptor types:
D1/D5 receptors →facilitate erection of the penis or sexual posture.
D2 receptors →linked to orgasm.

Serotonin inhibits sexual activity by blocking dopamine release.

 MALES
Testosterone Levels and Behavior:
Higher testosterone = stronger sexual drive and partner-seeking behavior.
Lower testosterone in:
Married/committed men vs. single men.
Men after marriage; levels may rise again after divorce.
Parallel in women: Single women have higher testosterone than partnered
women.
High testosterone (in both sexes) → more likely to seek additional partners.

Impact of Decreased Testosterone:

Castration or anti-androgen drugs → reduce sexual drive; used therapeutically in
sex offenders.
Impotence:
Usually due to poor blood circulation, not low testosterone.
Viagra (sildenafil) enhances nitric oxide effects, increasing penile blood flow.
 FEMALES
The Menstrual Cycle (Hormonal Overview):
Cycle length: ~28 days.
Key hormones:
FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone) → stimulates follicle
growth and estrogen production.
LH (Luteinizing Hormone) → surge triggers ovulation.
Estradiol → promotes LH surge and uterine lining growth.
Progesterone (from corpus luteum) → prepares uterus for
implantation and inhibits further LH.
If not pregnant: Estradiol and progesterone decline, leading to
menstruation.

Pregnancy and Nausea

-High estradiol and progesterone →
increased
activity at 5-HT3 (serotonin) receptors →
nausea.
-Possibly an evolutionary adaptation to avoid harmful
foods during early pregnancy.
 FEMALES
Hormones and Female Sexual Behavior:
Estradiol + progesterone → enhances female sexual behavior (shown
in rats).
Estradiol increases the sensitivity of the pudendal nerve, which carries
vaginal and cervical stimulation signals.
Estradiol is essential for sexual behavior across mammals.

Human Female Sexual Desire:

Estradiol, not testosterone, is key:
Menopause or ovary removal →↓ estradiol →↓ sexual desire.
Restoring estradiol → increases sexual desire.
Testosterone only effective in unnaturally high doses.
Desire fluctuates with estradiol levels, not testosterone.
 FEMALES
Periovulatory Period (Highest Fertility):
Estradiol peaks mid-cycle (fertile period) → increases sexual interest and subtle
behavioral changes:
More likely to initiate sex (if not on birth control).
Increased flirting, wearing red/pink, sexier gait around ovulation.
Often unconscious behavioral changes.
Lap dancer study:
Women not on birth control earned more tips during ovulation.
Suggests increased sexual attractiveness and confidence during this period.

Contraception:
Combination birth control pills (estrogen and progesterone) prevent pregnancy by:
Preventing the FSH/LH surge that releases an ovum.
Thickening cervical mucus (blocks sperm).
Preventing ovum implantation in the uterus.
EFFECTS OF SEX HORMONES
ON NONSEXUAL
CHARACTERISTICS
Key Findings:
1. Gender Differences in Emotional Recognition
Research shows that women are generally better than men at recognizing
facial expressions of emotion.
This difference may be influenced by sex hormones.

2. Effects of Testosterone on Women

In a study, women were given extra testosterone and asked to identify
emotions in facial expressions (anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and
surprise).
Results: After receiving testosterone, women became less accurate at
recognizing anger.
Conclusion: Testosterone appears to interfere with attention to emotional
expressions.

3. Other Hormonal Influences

Testosterone also reduces women’s ability to infer others’ moods by
observing their eyes.
Estradiol increases men’s emotional responses to seeing someone in distress
whom they find attractive.
PARENTAL BEHAVIOR
Key Points:
1. Behavioral Changes in Mothers
After giving birth, a mother’s behavior changes in many ways.
She nurses and cares for her young, eats and drinks more than usual,
and becomes less fearful but more aggressive, especially when
defending her offspring.

2. Hormonal Influence
After delivery, the mother’s body increases secretion of oxytocin and
prolactin.
Oxytocin and prolactin - promote milk production and various maternal
behaviors.
Prolactin - inhibits sensitivity to leptin, allowing the mother to eat more
than usual.
3. Changes in Hormone Receptors
Sensitivity to estradiol increases in brain regions crucial for maternal
behavior and attention to the young, including the:
Medial preoptic area (POA/AH) – important for temperature regulation,
thirst, and sexual behavior.
Anterior hypothalamus – involved in maternal motivation.
Nucleus accumbens – plays a key role in feeding behavior.

Vasopressin a hormone from the hypothalamus, plays a key role in social

bonding and parenting.
In animals:
Prairie voles High vasopressin levels Loyalty and strong parental care
Meadow voles Low vasopressin levels Neglect of mates and offspring

In humans, less-active vasopressin receptor genes are linked to weaker

relationships, higher divorce rates, and lower altruism.
Experience-dependent maternal behavior occurs without hormonal changes,
even in females without ovaries and in males, though males rarely show it in
nature due to limited contact with offspring.

Human Parental Behavior

In humans, pregnancy and delivery cause brain growth in areas linked to
reward and motivation.
The degree of brain growth correlates with positive emotions about
motherhood.
However, human parental behavior is largely experience-dependent rather
than hormone-dependent.

After childbirth, fathers experience hormonal changes: testosterone decreases

and prolactin increases, especially when they are closely involved with the
mother and infant.
Men with these hormonal patterns tend to engage more in childcare, though
it remains unclear whether the hormones cause this behavior or are a result
of it.
 Mo d u l e 1 0 . 2
VARIATIONS IN SEXUAL
BEHAVIOR
 EVOLUTIONARY
INTERPRETATIONS OF MATING
BEHAVIOR
 HUMAN SEXUAL DIVERSITY

People vary widely in:

o Frequency of sexual activity
o Types of sexual activity
o Sexual orientation
Understanding these differences helps explain human mating behavior.

Key questions:
o Do male and female mating behaviors make biological or evolutionary
sense?
o Are these behaviors products of evolution or culture?
These issues are complex and sometimes controversial.
 EVOLUTIONARY INTERPRETATIONS OF MATING BEHAVIOR
• Based on Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution:
o Natural Selection: Traits aiding survival are passed to offspring.
o Sexual Selection: Traits that increase attractiveness to the opposite sex
are more likely to be inherited.

Examples in animals:
o Male deer’s antlers and bright bird plumage attract mates but risk
survival.
o In many species, females are less colorful to stay hidden while nesting.
 EVOLUTIONARY INTERPRETATIONS OF
MATING BEHAVIOR
• In humans, male–female differences may partly reflect sexual
selection.
• Evolution may have shaped traits that each sex finds attractive
in the other.
• Evolutionary psychologists argue that behaviors like mate
choice and jealousy are influenced by reproductive pressures.
• However, such explanations remain controversial and not all
behaviors are purely biological.
 INTEREST IN MULTIPLE MATES
Cross-cultural pattern: Men are generally more interested in casual or multiple sexual
relationships than women.

Evolutionary explanation
o Men’s strategy: Spread genes widely—either through loyalty to one partner or mating
with many
o Women’s limitation: Can have only one pregnancy every 9 months; benefit more from
stable support

Female advantages of multiple partners

o If primary partner is infertile
o May receive extra protection, resources, or “better genes.
o Can potentially “trade up” for a better mate
Controversy: No clear genetic evidence that preferences for multiple mates are inherited.
 WHAT MEN AND WOMEN SEEK IN A MATE
Universal preferences: health, intelligence, honesty, and physical attractiveness.
Women’s additional preferences:
o A partner who can provide resources and stability.
o Likely evolved because pregnancy and child-rearing limit self-sufficiency.
o Women tend to be cautious in courtship—seek signs of long-term commitment.

Men’s preferences:
o Younger partners—associated with higher fertility and longer reproductive
potential.
o Men’s fertility lasts longer, so youth is less critical for women’s choices.

In countries where women have education and economic power, they rely less on
men’s resources and choose partners closer to their age or social level.
 DIFFERENCES IN JEALOUSY
Gender patterns in jealousy:
Men: more distressed by sexual infidelity.
Women: more distressed by emotional infidelity.

Evolutionary reasoning:
o Men must ensure that the children they support are genetically theirs.
o Women risk losing a partner’s emotional and financial support to another
woman.

Most societies are stricter about women’s infidelity than men’s.

No known culture views women’s infidelity as more acceptable than men’s.
Both men and women experience jealousy—differences are tendencies, not
absolutes.
 EVOLVED OR LEARNED?
• In animals, male mating competition and female selectivity are common and
uncontroversial.

• For humans, the picture is more complex due to culture and social norms.

• Evolutionary explanations help us understand tendencies, but they don’t

justify behavior.

• Biology provides predispositions—but civilization and learning shape how we

act.
SEXUAL ORIENTATION
GENDER IDENTITY
AND GENDER-
DIFFERENTIATED
BEHAVIORS

Gender Identity - what we consider

ourselves to be
Sex Differences - biological differences
between males and females
Gender Differences - differences that
result from people’s regarding themselves
as male or female
 INTERSEX
Hermaphrodite (from Hermes and Aphrodite in Greek
mythology) has anatomy intermediate between male and
female, or shows a mixture of male and female anatomies
True Hermaphrodite
Has both ovarian and testicular tissue.
May result when two fertilized ova (one XX and one XY)
fuse instead of developing as twins.

Intersex
A general term for individuals whose sexual anatomy is
intermediate between male and female.
The term “differences of sexual development (DSD)” is also
used.
 INTERSEX
Causes of Intersex Conditions:
• Atypical hormone pattern during early development.
• Genetic males (XY) with low testosterone levels or defective testosterone
receptors may develop female or mixed features.
• Genetic females (XX) exposed to high testosterone levels may become
partly masculinized.
• The most common cause is Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH).

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

• A genetic disorder causing overactive adrenal glands.
• Due to low cortisol, the pituitary gland releases excess ACTH
(andrenocorticotropic hormone) , leading to more testosterone production.
• Genetic females with CAH show masculinized external genitals, though internal
organs are less affected.
• Treated medically to balance hormones; sometimes surgery is done to modify
genital appearance.
 Interest and Preference of Girls with CAH
• Girls with CAH are exposed to higher prenatal testosterone, leading to more
interest in “boy-typical” toys and activities, better spatial skills, and preferences and
behaviors between typical males and females.

• They often show more aggression, interest in sports, and

...
male-dominated careers
but still mostly identify as female.

Testicular Feminization
• Also known as androgen insensitivity

• Occurs in individuals with XY chromosomes whose cells cannot respond to

androgens. Despite having internal testes, they develop female external features
and identity, with no menstruation and little pubic hair due to androgen resistance.
 Issues of Gender Assignment and Rearing
• Some genetic males are born with a very small penis because of a
condition called cloacal exstrophy, a defect of pelvis development
(Reiner & Gearhart, 2004).
• Historically, doctors recommended raising such children as girls, often
...
using surgery to create female-looking genitals.

Problems with Traditional Approach:

• Males with cloacal exstrophy raised as girls often develop male interests,
identify as male, and are attracted to women.
• Many females with CAH experience poor sexual outcomes after surgery
—loss of sensation, incontinence, and difficulty with intimacy.
• Many intersex individuals resent being deceived about their condition and
experience lasting emotional trauma.
 Issues of Gender Assignment and Rearing

How should such a child be reared?

• Be fully honest with the child and family;

... obtain informed
consent before any action.
• Assign gender based on external appearance, without
automatic bias toward female.
• Raise the child consistently in the chosen gender but
remain open to future gender or orientation changes.
• Avoid early genital surgery; such procedures should only
occur in adulthood if the individual personally requests it.
 Discrepancies of Sexual Appearance

One key example involves genetic males with 5α-reductase

deficiency, seen in some communities like the Dominican
Republic. These individuals appear female at... birth and are raised
as girls, but their brains are exposed to male hormone levels before
birth.

At puberty, testosterone causes their bodies to masculinize, and

most then adopt a male gender identity and are attracted to
females—suggesting a strong biological influence of prenatal
hormones.
 SEXUAL ORIENTATION
BEHAVIORAL AND
Same-sex genital contact occurs in many animal
species, indicating homosexuality is natural. However, ANATOMICAL DIFFERENCES
exclusive lifelong homosexual orientation is seen in Homosexual and heterosexual
only humans and sheep. Whereas most men discover
individuals exhibit anatomical
their sexual orientation early, many women are slower.
differences, such as variations in
Boys’ feminine-type behaviors in childhood and nose and forehead shapes, with
adolescence correlate strongly with homosexual heterosexual men typically being
orientation in adulthood, but girls’ masculine-type taller and heavier by about 1.5 cm.
behaviors are poor predictors of later sexual Behaviorally, gay men often
orientation. gravitate towards traditionally
Approximately 3.5% of U.S. adults identify as gay or female careers and differ in
lesbian, with variations depending on survey wording. directional communication styles,
Differences exist among countries, influenced by favoring landmarks over cardinal
secrecy and reporting issues. A small percentage of directions, contrasting with
straight individuals report same-sex experiences or heterosexual men's preferences.
attractions. Transgender individuals make up about
0.3% of the population, with less confidence in this
figure. Bisexuality is more prevalent in women and
youth, while men rarely switch sexual orientations
despite some experiencing both.
 GENETICS
Genetic studies found greater sexual
orientation concordance in monozygotic
PRENATAL INFLUENCES
than dizygotic twins. The Swedish twin Prenatal Hormones
study, examining ages 20-47, found higher • Testosterone levels during fetal development
concordance for homosexual activity in may shape the brain and later influence
monozygotic twins compared to dizygotic orientation.
twins, with varying results in other countries.
Maternal Immune Response
Modern research suggests a potential • Men with older biological brothers are more
genetic link to homosexuality, with findings likely to be homosexual, possibly due to immune
on maternal relatives showing higher reactions during repeated male pregnancies.
incidence than paternal. For example, they • Studies in several countries report that the
reported that uncles and cousins on the probability of a homosexual orientation is slightly
mother’s side were more likely to be higher among men who have older brothers.
homosexual than uncles and cousins on the
father’s side. Results indicate a potential X Prenatal Stress and Alcohol
• Animal studies show that maternal stress or
chromosome gene influence, but other alcohol during pregnancy can alter brain structure
studies reveal no parental difference, and sexual behavior.
questioning the gene's significance in
homosexuality.
 BRAIN STRUCTURE DIFFERENCES AND SEXUAL
ORIENTATION
Research shows some brain
structures vary with sexual
orientation, especially in the
anterior hypothalamus.
Figure 10.15 and 10.16 (LeVay,
1991) show this size difference —
the average INAH-3 volume in
heterosexual men was about twice
as large as in homosexual men.
These findings suggest a possible
biological basis for sexual
orientation, though causation
remains unclear. Figure 10.16 Volumes of the Figure 10.15 Typical sizes of
interstitial nucleus 3 of the anterior interstitial nucleus 3 of the anterior
hypothalamus (INAH-3) hypothalamus
 INTERPRETING INAH-3 AND OTHER BRAIN
DIFFERENCES
Research shows some brain
structures vary with sexual
orientation, especially in the anterior
hypothalamus.
Figure 10.15 and 10.16 (LeVay,
1991) show this size difference —
the average INAH-3 volume in
heterosexual men was about twice
as large as in homosexual men.
These findings suggest a possible
biological basis for sexual orientation,
though causation remains unclear. Figure 10.17 Another comparison of INAH-3 Hetero
female HIV+
t h a n k y o u !