CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter reviews relevant literature from various sources to examine sustainable

pavement materials and the use of coconut waste in construction. It focuses on the properties,

performance, environmental benefits, and cost efficiency of coconut-based materials, providing a

foundation for assessing the potential of Innovation of CocoPave: A Sustainable Pavement

Material from Coconut Waste in promoting sustainable and waste-reducing infrastructure

solutions.

Review of Related Literature

A laboratory model of porous asphalt pavement was developed and tested to evaluate its

performance in reducing heavy metals from artificial stormwater runoff, corresponding to the

rainfall intensity of a subtropical monsoon climate. Three additional layers (coconut husk

adsorbent, sand, and geotextiles) were added to conventional pavement layers. The pavement

was found to sustain medium traffic load, and concentrations of Pb, Cr, Zn, and Cu in runoff

were reduced by up to 89%, 56%, 98%, and 67% respectively at the bottom layer, indicating its

potential as an alternative to conventional pavement after further in-situ testing (Md Kali Mur

Rahman, et al., 2020).

According to G. Penna Ras et al., (2019) Coconut shell aggregate concrete paver blocks

were produced and tested according to IS 15658:2006, with conventional aggregate paver blocks

as a control. Test parameters included workability, density, dimensions, compressive strength,

water absorption, and abrasion resistance. Results showed that coconut shell aggregate paver
blocks performed well, encouraging the use of coconut shell as a replacement for conventional

aggregate in paver block production.

The study examines the influence of coconut shells (CS) and coconut fibers (CF) on the

stability and rutting resistance of porous asphalt mixture. CS and CF were chemically treated

with 5 wt% sodium hydroxide before use. Four CS replacement percentages and three CF

additive levels were tested using Marshall stability and asphalt pavement analyzer. An optimum

CS replacement level of 10% and CF content of 0.3% were found to significantly increase

stability and rutting resistance (Hary Ati et al., 2019).

According to Tay Lay Ting et al. (2015) This paper reviews the use of coconut shell and

coconut fiber in road construction. These waste materials have been explored in the highway

industry, with studies showing that coconut fiber can enhance stability, skid resistance, and

resilient modulus, while coconut shell improves indirect tensile strength and static creep

behavior of modified asphalt pavement.

The study evaluated coconut coir geotextiles (CGTs) as an alternative to synthetic

geosynthetics for low-volume roads (LVRs). Finite element models showed CGTs increased

subgrade modulus by 37–46%, reducing aggregate layer thickness by 17.5–23.5%, cost by 15.5–

17.3%, and global warming potential by 15.0–21.0% (Dona Lavanya Ravikumar et al., 2023)

According to Mahabir Panda et al. (2013) This laboratory study tested ripe coconut fiber

as an additive in stone matrix asphalt (SMA) mixes with conventional and modified bitumen.

Results showed that adding just 0.3% coconut fiber significantly improved the mix’s engineering

properties, including tensile strength, resilient modulus, and moisture susceptibility, while

preventing binder drainage in SMA.

 Karl Andre F. Aquino et al. (2021) this study examined how adding coconut fiber affects

concrete’s abrasion resistance and water permeability. Results indicated that moderate fiber

content (≈2.5%) increased abrasion resistance over normal concrete, and higher fiber content

significantly increased water permeability useful insight for permeable pavement designs like

CocoPave.

According to Christian and Ma. Magdalena (2025) using coconut coir to replace part of

the sand in concrete hollow blocks, improving sustainability by recycling abundant local coconut

waste.

Research developed a porous concrete mix reinforced with coconut fiber tailored for

sidewalks and drain covers. The use of natural fibers enhanced permeability and sustainability

directly relevant to CocoPave’s aim to improve drainage and reduce flooding via permeable

concrete solutions (Christ Joseph B. Quiambao et al., 2025).

The Bernardo A. Lejano et al. (2024) the study evaluates the coconut shell ash and

granules as partial aggregate replacements in concrete reinforced with coconut coir. Optimal

mixes achieved viable compressive and tensile strengths for non-structural uses, indicating that

coconut agricultural wastes can replace conventional concrete components supporting

sustainable material innovation in pavements.

According to Ramaiah Prakash et al. (2024) replacing coarse aggregate in concrete with

waste coconut shells combined with alccofine (ultrafine supplementary cementitious material).

The use of coconut shell reduced reliance on mined aggregate and lowered environmental

footprint. Adding alccofine improved hydration and mechanical properties, demonstrating eco-

efficient concrete production from agricultural waste.

 This research examines how a bio-rejuvenator derived from coconut shell enhances the

fatigue life of recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) mixtures. Results show that adding the bio-

rejuvenator increases stiffness and reduces cracking in RAP mixes, indicating coconut shell

derivatives could improve asphalt durability and sustainability (Atmy Verani, 2023).

According to S. Satheesh Kumar et al. (2024) This study investigates the use of coir pith

ash (CPA) and coconut shell fibers as sustainable materials in concrete, with CPA partially

replacing cement and coconut shells as coarse aggregate.

This thesis by Xcyl Myrrh Precioso (2020) addresses the high volume of coconut waste

in the Philippines (where coconut production reached 3.31 million metric tons in 2019) by

testing mature coconut fiber as an additive in concrete paver blocks. The study aims to improve

paver durability, reduce cracking under traffic, and enhance stormwater drainage to mitigate

flooding

Various fiber proportions were tested to measure compressive strength and durability.

The results showed that coconut fiber enhanced crack resistance and structural performance

while reducing material costs (J. R. Dizon, 2016).

Review of Related Studies

This research by Radha Tomar et al. (2021) Coconut shell is a traditional

agricultural waste which is harvesting every year for various purposes entire the globe. The outer

shell cover of coconut can be a promising technique which can be applied in the light-weight

construction practices. The adaptability of such waste not only reducing the impact of soil

pollution but also serves the purpose of filling materials in the concrete construction.
 According to Yasmin Yuriz1 et al. (2020) The agricultural waste materials including

coconut husk fiber, rice husk ash, sugarcane bagasse ash, and palm oilfuel ash was very reliable

to be used in the road construction industry. The high biomass silica content in these materials

has increased the pozzolan reaction with soil. The pozzolanic additives have increased the

geotechnical properties of soil. However, the durability of biomass silica in the soil was limited.

Thus, it is crucial to introduce other non-biodegradable materials into the soil.

Construction and demolition waste (CDW) and coconut husk are frequently discharged

into landfills, creating an environmental problem. However, the CDW can be used to obtain

good-quality recycled aggregates (RA), and the coconut husk can be processed into coconut fiber

(CF). These materials can be used in the construction of cement bound granular mixtures

(CBGM) to be applied as base and sub-base layers of road pavements. Such a large-scale

application would bring value to these materials and reduce the extraction of non-renewable

natural resources (João Crucho et al., 2020).

This research by Irene Vista Simanjuntak (2025) Using coconut fiber at 0.5% of the

concrete’s volume helps make the mix more resistant to cracking and still holds the compressive

strength at around 10 MPa. The best results show up in mix V4, where 10% RHA and 0.5%

CC content, coconut fiber are used together. That mixends up with a porosity of 21%, a

permeability rate of 3.8 mm/s, compressive strength at 10 MPa, and water absorption right at the

250 L/m³ mark.

The coconut fiber proportion of 3 % improved the compressive strength by 18.4 % up to

23.23 MPa, as that of the correspondimg control specimen. The water absorption was reduced

massively by 54.1 % up to 0.99 % compared to that of the control specimen. Also, the density
was enhanced by 6.5 % up to 1.54 g/cm3 by incorporating 3 % coconut fiber by weight of the

mix (Salman Ahmad et al., 2023).

Balamurali Kanagaraj et al. (2025) Coconut Coir (CC) as a replacement for conventional

sand significantly influences the workability, density, compressive strength, fire resistance,

environmental sustainability, and economic feasibility of concrete. The findings indicate that the

slump value of concrete decreases notably with increased primarily due to its highwater

absorption capacity. This necessitates careful adjustments in the water-to-cement (w/c) ratio to

achieve optimal performance. Moreover, a 32% reduction in density was observed for 100% CC

replacement, highlighting its potential suitability for lightweight, non-structural applications.

According to Dedy (2023) Coir fiber is a material that has fibers with a thickness of 5 cm

which is included in the outer part of the coconut. The fibers that can be extracted are 40% of the

hairy fibers while a total of 60% of the mattress fibers. From a total of 1000 grams that are

extracted, 70 parts of the fibers will be obtained, then 19 parts of mattress fibers and 12 parts for

fur fibers.

A study conducted by [Link] et al. (2019) Coconut fibre has outstanding moisture

absorption because the irregular of crack in the cross section surface provides unique structure.

This structure also results in better air permeability and moisture conductivity. In addition, the

unique structure of the CF will improve the moisture susceptibility, viscoelasticity and rutting

resistance as well as ameliorate low temperature anti-cracking properties, durability, material

toughness, fatigue life and lowering reflective cracking of asphalt concrete mixtures and

pavements.

A study by [Link] Kumar et al. (2024) Paver blocks are playing a vital role in the
construction field. Utilizing coir fiber waste as sustainable materials in the production of paver

blocks. Coir fiber waste is derived from the husk of coconuts. They have properties that can

enhance the performance and sustainability of traditional concrete paver blocks.

According to Rosmawati Mamat et al. (2025) This study investigates the mechanical

performance of Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) incorporating CSC and CSAC which is derived from

waste materials as a bio-based additive to improve strength, rutting and fatigue resistance. The

bitumen mixtures were prepared with varying CSAC contents (0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and

25% by weight of bitumen) and evaluated through Marshall stability, indirect tensile strength

(ITS), and dynamic creep tests. The findings revealed that CSAC modification significantly

improved the stiffness, tensile strength, and resistance to permanent deformation of asphalt

mixtures. The optimal performance was achieved at 5.2% CSAC, yielding substantial

enhancements in rutting and fatigue resistance compared to the control mix. The results

demonstrate that CSAC is a promising sustainable additive for improving the mechanical

durability of asphalt pavements while contributing to waste utilization and environmental

sustainability.

This study by Ottavia Rospoli et al (2023) presents a comparative Life Cycle Assessment

(LCA) of traditional RPS, and the Sustainable RPS (SRPS) mixes that were made and tested at

the London South Bank University (LSBU) laboratories. As partial substitutes for bitumen and

aggregate, the SRPS mixes adopt secondary materials derived from Polyethylene terephthalate

(PET) recycling and Carbonated Aggregates (CA) in the asphalt mixes. Incorporating secondary

materials into asphalt mixes significantly reduces landfill waste and lessens the demand for

extracting virgin materials like aggregates and bitumen.

 The increase in the softening point was also a positive aspect for the technical

characteristics of the binder, as this increase tends to bring greater resistance to high

temperatures for asphalt mixtures and consequently more resistance to aging. Regarding the

mechanical characteristics of the mixture, a decrease in stability, creep and tensile strength was

observed in the mixture with the addition of 3% of the coconut fiber (Henrique Alexandre et al.,

2020).

According to Suman Meena and Sapna Meena, (2018) One of the main prevalence of

using under any distributed fiber is the maintenance of strength isotropy and absenteeism of

potential planes of lack that can develop parallel to the conform reinforcement from the

investigation is achieve that 1.5% coir fiber and 1.5 cm length is optimum percentage and

efficient length for the type of coir fiber. The recumbent of pavement thickness is greatly

decrease due to blended effects of the waste materials on the sub-grade wide soil compared to

respective response of these waste materials. This markdown in thickness of pavement is directly

proportional to the attrition in cost of construction.

The results demonstrate that CSAC is a promising sustainable additive for improving the

mechanical durability of asphalt pavements while contributing to waste utilization and

environmental sustainability (Rosmawati Mamat et al., 2025).

A study by A Widayanti (2023) it was found that the characteristics of aggregate, asphalt

and filler made from coconut shell ash meet the requirements as road pavement material based

on the Bina Marga Specifications. Coconut shell ash filler content of 3.5% and 4% produces

OAC (Optimum Asphalt Content) values of 5.5% and 5.8%. It shows that a greater percentage of

coconut shell ash utilization requires more asphalt.

 A maximum of 50% of coarse aggregate can be replaced by coconut shell

without any compromise on strength properties (S. Udayakumar and [Link] kumar, 2017).

According to alim et al., (2025) Coconut fiber with a random distribution pattern in the

mixture has the ability to accept and absorb stresses due to traffic loads with a uniform stress

distribution pattern to the pavement structure layer with a higher level of mixture flexibility.

Coconut fiber can improve the adhesion and cohesion properties of the asphalt concrete

mixtures. The fiber-reinforced mixtures contribute to the mixing of the deformation values so

that the asphalt concrete mixture is able to maintain its strength until no deformation occurs.

A study by Pala and Abhirami (2020) This propounded literature paper emphasizes a

cardinal focus on the elaborative research work proffered on the impact of assorted waste

materials in flexible pavement construction.

The Coconut fibres have the highest toughness amongst natural fibres. They had enough

potential to be used as reinforcement in low-cost concrete structures, especially in tropical

earthquake regions. It is observed that CFRC with a fibre length of 5 cm and a fibre content of

5% has the best properties ([Link] et al., 2019).

According to Jagdish Gouda et al. (2025) the study confirms the effectiveness of

utilising mine overburden materials and coir geotextiles, par-ticularly bitumen-treated variants,

as reinforcement in low-volume road construction.