1.
INSTRUMENT AND MEASUREMENT
INSTRUMENT
It is a device for determining values or magnitude of a quantity or variable through a given set
of formulas.
MEASUREMENT
It is a process of comparing an unknown quantity with an accepted standard quantity.
1.1. ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT &INSTRUMENTATION
It is the branch of Electronics which deals with the study of measurement and variations of
different parameters of various instruments.
⮚Why measurement of parameters and study of variations for a particular instrument are
required?
The measurement of parameters and its variations for a particular instrument is required
because it helps in understanding the behaviour of an instrument.
1.2. CONDITION FOR A MEASURING INSTRUMENT
The measuring instrument must not affect the quantity which is to be measured.
2. MEASUREMENT SYSTEM PERFORMANCE:
The performance of the measurement system/instruments are divided into two categories.
(i) Static Characteristics.
(ii)Dynamic Characteristics.
2.1. STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENT
These are those characteristics of an instrument which do not vary with time and are generally
considered to check if the given instrument is fit to be used for measurement. The static
characteristics are from one form or another by the process called Calibration.
They are as follows:
1. ACCURACY- It is defined as the ability of a device or a system to respond to a true value
of a measure variable under condition. In other words, the degree of exactness (closeness) of a
measurement compared to the expected (desired) value.
2. PRECISION- Precision is the degree of exactness for which an instrument is design or
intended to perform. In other words, a measure of the consistency or repeatability of
measurements, i.e. successive readings do not differ. (Precision is the consistency of the
instrument output for a given value of input).
3. REPEATABILITY- The repeatability is a measuring device may be defined as the closeness
of an agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of the output for the same value
of the input under save operating system.
4. REPRODUCIBILITY- Reproducibility of an instrument is the closeness of the output for
the same value of input. Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has no drift.
5. SENSITIVITY- Sensitivity can be defined as a ratio of a change output to the change input
at steady state condition.
6. RESOLUTION- Resolutions the least increment value of input or output that can be
detected, caused or otherwise discriminated by the measuring device. In other words, the
smallest change in a measured variable to which an instrument will respond.
7. TRUE VALUE- True value is error free value of the measure variable it is given as
difference between the Instrument Reading and Static error.
Mathematically,
True value= Obtained Instrument reading – static error
8. STATIC ERROR- The difference between the measured value of quantity and true value
(Reference Value) of quantity is called as Error.
Error = Measured value – True value
9. LOADING EFFECT- Loading effect is the incapability of the system to faith fully measure,
record or control the input signal in accurate form.
10. DRIFT- Drift is an undesirable change in output over a period of time that is unrelated to
change in input, operating conditions. Drift occurred in instruments due to internal temperature
variations, ageing effects and high stress, etc.
Zero drift is used for the changes that occur in output when there is zero output. It is expressed
as percentage of full range output.
11. DEAD ZONE- Dead zone or dead band is defined as the largest change of input quantity
for which there is no output the instrument due the factors such as friction, backlash and
hysteresis within the system. (The region up to which the instrument does not respond for an
input change is called dead zone).Dead time is the time required by an instrument to begin to
respond to change in input quantity.
2.2. DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENT
The Dynamic Characteristics are those which change within a period of time that is generally
very short in nature.
1. SPEED OF RESPONSE- It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to the changes
to in the measurement quantity.
2. FIDELITY- The degree to which an instrument indicates the measure variable without
dynamic error.
3. LAG- It is retardation or delay in the response an instrument to the changes in the
measurement.
4. DYNAMIC ERROR- It is the different between true value of a quantity changing with and
value indicated by the instrument. The Dynamic Errors are caused by the instrument not
responding fast enough to follow the changes in the measured value.
3. ERROR
In reality, no measurement can ever made with 100 % accuracy. The deviation or change of the
value obtained from measurement from the desired standard value.
Mathematically,
Error = Obtained Reading/Value – Standard Reference Value.
There are three types of error.
They are as follows:
1. GROSS ERRORS- The main source of Gross errors is human mistakes in reading or using
instruments and in recording and calculating measured quantity. As long as human beings are
involved and they may grossly misread the scale reading, then definitely some gross errors will
be occurred in measured value.
In other words, this are the error due to humans’ mistakes such as careless reading mistakes in
recoding observation incorrect application of an instrument.
2. SYSTEMATIC ERROR- A constant uniform deviation of an instrument is as systematic
error (or have similar patterns). There are two types of systematic error.
a) STATIC ERROR
The static error of a measuring instrument is the numerical different between the true value of
a quantity and its value as obtained by measurement.
b) DYNAMIC ERROR
1. It is the different between true value of a quantity changing with and value indicated by the
instrument.
2. The Dynamic Errors are caused by the instrument not responding fast enough to follow the
changes in the measured value.
3. RANDOM ERROR- The cause of such error is unknown or not determined in the ordinary
process of making measurement.
These errors occurred due to unknown causes and are observed when the magnitude and
polarity of a measurement fluctuate in changeable (random) manner. The quantity being
measure is affected by many happenings or disturbances and ambient influence about which
we are unaware are lumped together and called as Random or Residual. The errors caused by
these disturbances are called Random Errors. Since the errors remain even after the systematic
errors have been taken care, those errors are called as Residual (Random) Errors. Random
errors cannot normally be predicted or corrected, but they can be minimized by skilled observer
and using a well maintained quality instrument.
TYPES OF STATIC ERROR
i. INSTRUMENTAL ERROR- These errors are inherent in instruments because of their
mechanical structure due to construction, calibration or operation of the instruments or
measuring devices. These errors may cause the instrument to read too low or too high. It can
be avoided by
a. Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement.
b. Applying correction factor after determining the amount of Instrumental error.
ii. ENVIROMENTAL ERROR –Environmental errors are due to conditions external to the
measuring device including condition al in the area surrounding the instrument such as effect
of change in temperature, humidity or electrostatic field it can be avoided
a. Providing air conditioning.
b. Use of magnetic shields.
iii. OBSERVATIONAL ERROR-
The errors introduced by the observer. These errors are caused by habits of the observers like
tilting his/her head too much while reading a “Needle – Scale Reading”.
3.1 SOURCES OF ERRORS
The sources of error, other than the inability of a piece of hardware to provide a
true measurements are listed below,
1) Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions.
2) Poor design
3) Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets (disturbances) ect.
4) Poor maintenance
5) Errors caused by people who operate the instrument or equipment.
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