MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)

Environmental Engineering
Module II
Akoju Ramu
Assistant Professor

MODULE II: Sedimentation and Filtration& Disinfection: Sedimentation: Types of sedimentation, principles,
uniform settlingvelocity, design of sedimentation tank, Coagulation- flocculation Definition andprinciples,
Types of coagulants, feeding arrangements. Optimum dosage of coagulant-Jar test
Filtration& Disinfection: Filtration theory/ Principles, Construction and working ofslow and rapid gravity
filters, multimedia filters, design of filters, troubles inoperation, comparison of filters, Disinfection – Types of
disinfection - Theory ofchlorination - chlorine demand, Residual chlorine test.
 UNIT-II
Functions of Water Treatment Units

Unit treatment Function (removal)

Aeration, Colour, Odour, Taste
chemical
Screening Floating matter
Chemical methods Iron, Manganese, etc.
Softening Hardness
Sedimentation Suspended matter
Coagulation Suspended matter, a part of colloidal matter and bacteria
Filtration Remaining colloidal dissolved matter, bacteria
Disinfection Pathogenic bacteria, Organic matter
and
Reducing
substances
The types of treatment required for different sources are given in the following table:

Source Treatment required

1. Ground water and spring water fairly free from No treatment or Chlorination
contamination
2. Ground water with chemicals, minerals and Aeration, coagulation (if
gases necessary), filtration and
disinfection
3. Lakes, surface water reservoirs with less Disinfection
amount of pollution
4. Other surface waters such as rivers, canals and Complete treatment
impounded reservoirs with a considerable
amount of pollution
Aeration
 Aeration removes odour and tastes due to volatile gases like hydrogen sulphide and due
to algae and related organisms.
 Aeration also oxidize iron and manganese, increases dissolved oxygen content in water,
removes CO2 and reduces corrosion and removes methane and other flammable gases.
 Principle of treatment underlines on the fact that volatile gases in water escape into
atmosphere from the air-water interface and atmospheric oxygen takes their place in
water provided the water body can expose itself over a vast surface to the atmosphere.
This process continues until equilibrium is reached depending on the partial pressure of
each specific gas in the atmosphere.
Types of Aerators
1. Gravity aerators
2. Fountain aerators
area of water is exposed to atmosphere, sometimes aided by turbulence.

Fountain Aerators: These are also known as spray aerators with special nozzles to produce a
fine spray. Each nozzle is 2.5 to 4 cm diameter discharging about 18 to 36 l/h. Nozzle spacing
should be such that each m3 of water has aerator area of 0.03 to 0.09 m2 for one hour.

Injection or Diffused Aerators: It consists of a tank with perforated pipes, tubes or diffuser
plates, fixed at the bottom to release fine air bubbles from compressor unit. The tank depth is
kept as 3 to 4 m and tank width is within 1.5 times its depth. If depth is more, the diffusers must
be placed at 3 to 4 m depth below water surface. Time of aeration is 10 to 30 min and 0.2 to 0.4
litres of air is required for 1 litre of water.

Mechanical Aerators: Mixing paddles as in flocculation are used. Paddles may be either
submerged or at the surface.

Settling or Sedimentation
Solid liquid separation process in which a suspension is separated into two phases –

 Clarified supernatant leaving the top of the sedimentation tank (overflow).

 Concentrated sludge leaving the bottom of the sedimentation tank (underflow).

Purpose of Settling

 To remove coarse dispersed phase.

 To remove coagulated and flocculated impurities.
 To remove precipitated impurities after chemical treatment.
 To settle the sludge (biomass) after activated sludge process / tricking filters.

Principle of Settling

 Suspended solids present in water having specific gravity greater than that of water tend
to settle down by gravity as soon as the turbulence is retarded by offering storage.
 Basin in which the flow is retarded is called settling tank.
 Theoretical average time for which the water is detained in the settling tank is called the
Detention period.
Types of Settling or Sedimentaion

Type I: Discrete particle settling - Particles settle individually without interaction with
neighboring particles.

Type II: Flocculent Particles – Flocculation causes the particles to increase in mass and settle at
a faster rate.

Type III: Hindered or Zone settling –The mass of particles tends to settle as a unit with
individual particles remaining in fixed positions with respect to each other.
Type IV: Compression – The concentration of particles is so high that sedimentation can only
occur through compaction of the structure.


 Calculate velocity using Stokes law or turbulent expression.
  Calculate and check Reynolds number.
 Calculate CD.
 Use general formula.
 Repeat from step 2 until convergence.

Types of Settling or Sedimentation Tanks

 Sedimentation tanks may function either intermittently or continuously. The intermittent

tanks also called quiescent type tanks are those which store water for a certain period and
keep it in complete rest. In a continuous flow type tank, the flow velocity is only reduced
and the water is not brought to complete rest as is done in an intermittent type.
 Settling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in plan. Long narrow
rectangular tanks with horizontal flow are generally preferred to the circular tanks with
radial or spiral flow.

Long Rectangular Settling Basin

 Long rectangular basins are hydraulically more stable, and flow control for large volumes
is easier with this configuration.
 A typical long rectangular tank has length ranging from 2 to 4 times their width.
The bottom is slightly sloped to facilitate sludge scraping. A slow moving
mechanical sludge scraper continuously pulls the settled material into a sludge
hopper from where it ispumped out periodically.

Drag of sedimentation tank

A long rectangular settling tank can be divided into four different functional zones:
Inlet zone: Region in which the flow is uniformly distributed over the cross section such that the
flow through settling zone follows horizontal path.
Settling zone: Settling occurs under quiescent conditions.
Outlet zone: Clarified effluent is collected and discharge through outlet weir.
 Sludge zone: For collection of sludge below settling zone.
Inlet and Outlet Arrangement

Inlet devices: Inlets shall be designed to distribute the water equally and at uniform velocities. A
baffle should be constructed across the basin close to the inlet and should project several feet
below the water surface to dissipate inlet velocities and provide uniform flow;
Outlet Devices: Outlet weirs or submerged orifices shall be designed to maintain velocities
suitable for settling in the basin and to minimize short-circuiting. Weirs shall be adjustable, and
at least equivalent in length to the perimeter of the tank. However, peripheral weirs are not
acceptable as they tend to cause excessive short-circuiting.

Weir Overflow Rates

Large weir overflow rates result in excessive velocities at the outlet. These velocities extend
backward into the settling zone, causing particles and flocs to be drawn into the outlet. Weir
loadings are generally used upto 300 m3/d/m. It may be necessary to provide special inboard
weir designs as shown to lower the weir overflow rates.

Inboard Weir Arrangement to Increase Weir Length

Circular Basins
 Circular settling basins have the same functional zones as the long rectangular basin, but
the flow regime is different. When the flow enters at the center and is baffled to flow
radially towards the perimeter, the horizontal velocity of the water is continuously
decreasing as the distance from the center increases. Thus, the particle path in a circular
basin is a parabola as opposed to the straight line path in the long rectangular tank.
 Sludge removal mechanisms in circular tanks are simpler and require less maintenance.

Particles falling through the settling basin have two components of velocity:
1) Vertical component: vt= (ρp-ρ)gd2

2) Horizontal component:vh=Q/A
  Now consider the particle with settling velocity < v0. If the initial depth of this particle
was such that Zp/vt=t0, this particle will also be removed. Therefore, the removal of
suspended particles passing through the settling zone will be in proportion to the ratio of
the individual settling velocities to the settlingvelocity.
 The time t0 corresponds to the retention time in the settlingzone.
 t= V=LZ0W
 QQ
Also
,t0=Z0
v0

Therefore, Z0 = LZ0W and v0= Q

v0 Q LW

or v0=Q
AS

Thus, the depth of the basin is not a factor in determining the size particle that can be removed
completely in the settling zone. The determining factor is the quantity Q/As, which has the units
of velocity and is referred to as the overflow rate q0. This overflow rate is the design factor for
settling basins and corresponds to the terminal setting velocity of the particle that is 100%
removed.

Design Details
1. Detention period: for plain sedimentation: 3 to 4 h, and for coagulated sedimentation: 2 to2.5h.
2. Velocity of flow: Not greater than 30 cm/min (horizontal flow).
3. Tank dimensions: L: B = 5:1. Generally L= 30 m (common) maximum 100 m.
Breadth= 6 m to 10 m. Circular: Diameter not greater than 60 m. generally 20 to40m.
4. Depth 2.5 to 5.0 m (3 m).
5. Surface Overflow Rate: For plain sedimentation 12000 to 18000 L/d/m2 tank area; for
thoroughly flocculated water 24000 to 30000 L/d/m2 tank area.
6. Slopes: Rectangular 1% towards inlet and circular8%.

Sedimentation Tank Design

Problem: Design a rectangular sedimentation tank to treat 2.4 million litres of raw water per
day. The detention period may be assumed to be 3hours.
Solution: Raw water flow per day is 2.4 x 106
l. Detention period is 3h.
Volume of tank = Flow x Detention period = 2.4 x 103 x 3/24 = 300 m3
Assume depth of tank = 3.0 m.
Surface area = 300/3 = 100 m2
L/B = 3 (assumed). L = 3B.
3B2 = 100 m2 i.e. B = 5.8 m
L = 3B = 5.8 X 3 = 17.4 2 2
m
Hence surface loading (Overflow rate) = 2.4x10 = 24,000l/d/m < 40,000 (OK)
100 l/d/m
General Properties of Colloids
1. Colloidal particles are so small that their surface area in relation to mass isverylarge.
2. Electrical properties: All colloidal particles are electrically charged. If electrodes froma
D.C. source are placed in a colloidal dispersion, the particles migrate towards the pole of
opposite charge.
3. Colloidal particles are in constant motion because of bombardment bymolecules of dispersion
medium. This motion is called Brownian motion (named after Robert Brown who first
noticedit).
4. Tyndall effect: Colloidal particles have dimension. These are reversible upon heating.
e.g. organics inwater.
5. Adsorption: Colloids have high surface area and hence have a lot of active surface for
adsorption to occur. The stability of colloids is mainly due to preferential adsorption of
ions. There are two types ofcolloids:
i. Lyophobic colloids: that is solvent hating. These are irreversible uponheating.
e.g. inorganic colloids, metal halides.
ii. Lyophilic colloids: that is solvent loving. These are reversible upon heating. E.g.
organics inwater.

Coagulation and Flocculation

 Colloidal particles are difficult to separate from water because they do not settle by
gravity and are so small that they pass through the pores of filtrationmedia.
 To be removed, the individual colloids must aggregate and grow insize.
 The aggregation of colloidal particles can be considered as involving two separate and
distinct steps:
1. Particle transport to effect inters particlecollision.
2. Particle destabilization to permit attachment when contactoccurs.

Transport step is known as flocculation whereas coagulation is the overall process

involving destabilization and transport.

Electrical Double Layer

Although individual hydrophobic colloids have an electrical charge, a colloidal dispersion does
not have a net electrical charge. The diffuse layer in a colloidal dispersion contains a quantity of
counter ions sufficient to balance the electrical charge on the particle. The charge distribution in
the diffuse layer of a negatively charged colloid can be represented by the curve ABCD in the
figure. The ions involved in this electro neutrality are arranged in such a way as to constitute

what is called electrical double layer.

Net repulsion force, which may be considered as energy barrier must be overcome before
aggregation occurs. The magnitude of energy barrier depends on (1) charge on the particle, and
(2) ionic composition of water.

Destabilization of Colloidal Dispersion

Particle destabilization can be achieved by four mechanisms:
 Change characteristics of medium-Compression of double layer.
 Change characteristics of colloid particles-Adsorption and charge neutralization.
 Provide bridges-
1. Enmeshment in precipitate.
2. Adsorption and inter particle bridging.

Flocculation

Flocculation is stimulation by mechanical means to agglomerate destabilized particles into

compact, fast settle able particles (or flocs). Flocculation or gentle agitation results fromvelocity
Differences or gradients in the coagulated water, which causes the fine moving, destabilized
particles to come into contact and become large, readily settle able flocs. It is a common practice
to provide an initial rapid (or) flash mix for the dispersal of the coagulant or other chemicals into
the water. Slow mixing is then done, during which the growth of the floc takes place.

Rapid or Flash mixing is the process by which a coagulant is rapidly and uniformly dispersed
through the mass of water. This process usually occurs in a small basin immediately preceding
or at the head of the coagulation basin. Generally, the detention period is 30 to 60 seconds and
the head loss is 20 to 60 cms of water. Here colloids are destabilized and the nucleus for the floc
isformed.

Slow mixing brings the contacts between the finely divided destabilized matter formed during
rapid mixing

Perikinetic and Orthokinetic Flocculation

The flocculation process can be broadly classified into two types, per kinetic and orthogenetic.
Per kinetic flocculation refers to flocculation (contact or collisions of colloidal particles) due to
Brownian motion of colloidal particles. The random motion of colloidal particles results from
their rapid and random bombardment by the molecules of the fluid.
Ortho kinetic flocculation refers to contacts or collisions of colloidal particles resulting from bulk
fluid motion, such as stirring. In systems of stirring, the velocity of the fluid varies both spatially
(from point to point) and temporally (from time to time). The spatial changes in velocity are
identified by a velocity gradient, G. G is estimated as G=(P/μV) 1/2, where P=Power, V=channel
volume, and μ= Absolute viscosity.
Mechanism of Flocculation
Gravitational flocculation: Baffle type mixing basins are examples of gravitational flocculation.
Water flows by gravity and baffles are provided in the basins which induce the required velocity
gradients for achieving floc formation.
Mechanical flocculation: Mechanical flocculator consists of revolving paddles with horizontal or
vertical shafts or paddles suspended from horizontal oscillating beams, moving up and down.

Coagulation in Water Treatment

 Salts of Al(III) and Fe(III) are commonly used as coagulants in water and wastewatertreatment.
 When a salt of Al(III) and Fe(III) is added to water, it dissociates to yield trivalent ions,
which hydrate to form aquometal complexes Al(H2O)6 and Fe(H2O)63+. These
complexe3s+then pass through a series of hydrolytic reactions in which H2O molecules in
the hydration shell are replaced by OH- ions to form a variety of soluble species such as
Al(OH)2+ and Al(OH)2+. These products are quite effective as coagulants as they adsorb
very strongly onto the surface of mostnegative colloids.

Destabilization using Al(III) and Fe(III) Salts

 Al(III) and Fe(III) accomplish destabilization by twomechanisms:
(1) Adsorption and charge neutralization. (2) Enmeshment in a sweep floc.
 Interrelations between pH, coagulant dosage, and colloid concentration determine
mechanism responsible for coagulation.
 Charge on hydrolysis products and precipitation of metal hydroxides are both controlled
by pH. The hydrolysis products possess a positive charge at pH values below iso- electric
point of the metal hydroxide. Negatively charged species which predominate above iso-
electric point, are ineffective for the destabilization of negatively chargedcolloids.
 Precipitation of amorphous metal hydroxide is necessary forsweep-floccoagulation.
 The solubility of Al(OH)3(s) and Fe(OH)3(s) is minimal at a particular pH and increases
as the pH increases or decreases from that value. Thus, pH must be controlled to establish
optimum conditions forcoagulation.
 Alum and Ferric Chloride reacts with natural alkalinity in water as follows:Al2(SO4)3.14H2O +
6HCO3- 2 Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 +14 H2O+3SO4 2-

 FeCl3 +3HCO
3- Fe(OH)3(S) +3 CO2 +3Cl-

Jar Test
The jar test is a common laboratory procedure used to determine the optimum operating
conditions for water or wastewater treatment. This method allows adjustments in pH, variations
in coagulant or polymer dose, alternating mixing speeds, or testing of different coagulant or
polymer types, on a small scale in order to predict the functioning of a large scale treatment.
Jar Test Procedure

 The jar test procedures involves the followingsteps:

 Fill the jar testing apparatus containers with sample water. One container will be used as
a control while the other 5 containers can be adjusted depending on what conditions are
being tested. For example, the pH of the jars can be adjusted or variations of coagulant
dosages can be added to determine optimum operating conditions.
 Add the coagulant to each container and stir at approximately 100 rpm for 1 minute. The
rapid mix stage helps to disperse the coagulant throughout each container.
 Turn off the mixers and allow the containers to settle for 30 to 45 minutes. Then measure
the final turbidity in each container.
 Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 35 rpm and continue mixing for 15 to 20 minutes. This
slower mixing speed helps promote floc formation by enhancing particle collisions which
lead to larger flocs.
 Residual turbidity vs. coagulant dose is then plotted and optimal conditions are
determined. The values that are obtained through the experiment are correlated and
adjusted in order to account for the actual treatment system.

Filtration
 The resultant water after sedimentation will not be pure, and may contain some very fine
suspended particles and bacteria in it. To remove or to reduce the remaining impurities
still further, the water is filtered through the beds of fine granular material, such as sand,
etc. The process of passing the water through the beds of such granular materials is
known as Filtration.

How Filters Work: Filtration Mechanisms

 There are four basic filtration mechanisms:
 SEDIMENTATION: The mechanism of sedimentation is due to force of gravity and the
associate settling velocity of the particle, which causes it to cross the streamlines and
reach the collector.
 INTERCEPTION: Interception of particles is common for large particles. If a large
enough particle follows the streamline that lies very close to the media surface it will hit
the media grain and be captured.
 BROWNIAN DIFFUSION: Diffusion towards media granules occurs for very small
particles, such as viruses. Particles move randomly about within the fluid, due to thermal
gradients. This mechanism is only important for particles with diameters < 1 micron.
INERTIA : Attachment by inertia occurs when larger particles move fast enough to
travel off their streamlines and bump into media grains.
Filter Materials

Sand: Sand, either fine or coarse, is generally used as filter media. The size of the sand is
measured and expressed by the term called effective size. The effective size, i.e. D10 may be
defined as the size of the sieve in mm through which ten percent of the sample of sand by weight
will pass. The uniformity in size or degree of variations in sizes of particles is measured and
expressed by the term called uniformitycoefficient. The uniformity coefficient, i.e.(D60/D10)
may be defined as the ratio of the sieve size in mm through which 60 percent of the sample of
sand will pass, to the effective size of the sand.

Gravel: The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits the filtered water to move
freely to the under drains, and allows the wash water to move uniformly upwards.

Other materials: Instead of using sand, sometimes, anthrafilt is used as filter media. Anthrafilt
is made from anthracite, which is a type of coal-stone that burns without smoke or flames. It is
cheaper and has been able to give a high rate of filtration.

Types of Filter

Slow sand filter: They consist of fine sand, supported by gravel. They capture particles near the
surface ofthe bed and are usually cleaned by scraping away the top layer of sand that contains
theparticles.

Rapid-sand filter: They consist of larger sand grains supported by gravel and capture particles
throughout the bed. They are cleaned by backwashing water through the bed to 'lift out' the
particles.
Multimedia filters: They consist of two or more layers of different granular materials, with
different densities. Usually, anthracite coal, sand, and gravel are used. The different layers
combined may provide more versatile collection than a single sand layer.
Principles of Slow Sand Filtration

 In a slow sand filter impurities in the water are removed by a combination of processes:
sedimentation, straining, adsorption, and chemical and bacteriologicalaction.
 During the first few days, water is purified mainly by mechanical and physical-chemical
processes. The resulting accumulation of sediment and organic matter forms a thin layer
on the sand surface, which remains permeable and retains particles even smaller than the
spaces between the sandgrains.
 As this layer (referred to as “Schmutzdecke”) develops, it becomes living quarters of vast
numbers of micro-organisms which break down organic material retained from the water,
converting it into water, carbon dioxide and otheroxides.
 Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are removed from the raw water as it
passes through the filter skin and the layer of filter bed sand just below. The purification
mechanisms extend from the filter skin to approx. 0.3-0.4 m below the surface of the
filter bed, gradually decreasing in activity at lower levels as the water becomes purified
and contains less organic material.
 When the micro-organisms become well established, the filter will work efficiently and
produce high quality effluent which is virtually free of disease carrying organisms and
biodegradable organicmatter.
 They are suitable for treating waters with low colors, low turbidities and low bacterialcontents.

Sand Filters vs. Rapid Sand Filters

 Base material: In SSF it varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and 30 to 75 cm in depth while
in RSF it varies from 3 to 40 mm in size and its depth is slightly more, i.e. about 60 to
90cm.
 Filter sand: In SSF the effective size ranges between 0.2 to 0.4 mm and uniformity
coefficientbetween1.8to2.5or3.0.InRSFtheeffectivesizerangesbetween0.35to
0.55 and uniformity coefficient between 1.2 to 1.8.
 Rate of filtration: In SSF it is small, such as 100 to 200 L/h/sq.m. of filter area while in
RSF it is large, such as 3000 to 6000 L/h/sq.m. offilterarea.
 Flexibility: SSF are not flexible for meeting variation in demand whereas RSF are quite
flexible for meeting reasonable variations indemand.
 Post treatment required: Almost pure water is obtained from SSF. However, water may
be disinfected slightly to make it completely safe. Disinfection is a must afterRSF.
 Method of cleaning: Scrapping and removing of the top 1.5 to 3 cm thick layer is done
to clean SSF. To clean RSF, sand is agitated and backwashed with or without
compressedair.
 Loss of head: In case of SSF approx. 10 cm is the initial loss, and 0.8 to 1.2m is the final
limit when cleaning is required. For RSF 0.3m is the initial loss, and 2.5 to 3.5m is the
final limit when cleaning isrequired.
Backwashing of Rapid Sand Filter

 For a filter to operate efficiently, it must be cleaned before the next filter run. If the water
applied to a filter is of very good quality, the filter runs can be very long. Some filters can
operate longer than one week before needing to be backwashed. However, this is not
recommended as long filter runs can cause the filter media to pack down so that it is
difficult to expand the bed during thebackwash.
 Treated water from storage is used for the backwash cycle. This treated water is generally
taken from elevated storage tanks or pumped in from theclearwell.
 The filter backwash rate has to be great enough to expand and agitate the filter media and
suspend the floc in the water for removal. However, if the filter backwash rate is too
high, media will be washed from the filter into the troughs and out ofthefilter.

When is Backwashing Needed

The filter should be backwashed when the following conditions have been met:

 The head loss is so high that the filter no longer produces water at the desired rate; and/or
Floc starts to break through the filter and the turbidity in the filter effluent increases;
and/or A filter run reaches a given hourofoperation.

Operational Troubles in Rapid Gravity Filters

Air Binding:

 When the filter is newly commissioned, the loss of head of water percolating through the
filter is generally very small. However, the loss of head goes on increasing as more and
more impurities get trapped intoit.
 A stage is finally reached when the frictional resistance offered by the filter media
exceeds the static head of water above the bed. Most of this resistance is offered by the
top 10 to 15 cm sand layer. The bottom sand acts like a vacuum, and water is sucked
through the filter media rather than getting filtered throughit.
 The negative pressure so developed, tends to release the dissolved air and other gases
present in water. The formation of bubbles takes place which stick to the sand grains.
This phenomenon is known as Air Binding as the air binds the filter and stops
itsfunctioning.
 To avoid such troubles, the filters are cleaned as soon as the head loss exceeds the
optimum allowablevalue
Formation of Mud Balls:

 The mud from the atmosphere usually accumulates on the sand surface to form a dense
mat. During inadequate washing this mud may sink down into the sand bed and stick to
the sandgrains and other arrested impurities, thereby forming mudballs.
Cracking of Filters:

 The fine sand contained in the top layers of the filter bed shrinks and causes the
development of shrinkage cracks in the sand bed. With the use of filter, the loss of head
and, therefore, pressure on the sand bed goes on increasing, which further goes on
widening thesecracks.

Remedial Measures to Prevent Cracking of Filters and Formation of Mud Balls

 Breaking the top fine mud layer with rakes and washing off theparticles.
 Washing the filter with a solution of causticsoda.
 Removing, cleaning and replacing the damaged filtersand.

Standard design practice of Rapid Sand filter: Maximum length of lateral = not less than 60
times its diameter. Spacing of holes = 6 mm holes at 7.5 cm c/c or 13 at 15 c/c. C.S area of
lateral = not less than 2 times area of perforations. C.S area of manifold = 2 times total area of
laterals. Maximum loss of head = 2 to 5 m. Spacing of laterals = 15 to 30 cm c/c. Pressure of
wash water at perforations = not greater than
kg/cm2. Velocity of flow in lateral = 2 m/s. Velocity of flow in manifold = 2.25 m/s.
Velocity of flow in manifold for wash water= 1.8 to 2.5 m/s. Velocity of rising wash
water= 0.5 to 1.0 m/min. Amount of wash water = 0.2 to 0.4% of total filtered water.
Time of backwashing
= 10 to 15 min. Head of water over the filter = 1.5 to 2.5 m. Free board = 60 cm. Bottom slope =
1 to 60 towardsmanifold.

Methods of Disinfection
1. Boiling: The bacteria present in water can be destroyed by boiling it for a long time.
However it is not practically possible to boil huge amounts of water. Moreover it cannot
take care of future possiblecontaminations.
2. Treatment with Excess Lime: Lime is used in water treatment plant for softening. But if
excess lime is added to the water, it can in addition, kill the bacteria also. Lime when
added raises thepH value owater making it extremely alkaline. This extreme alkalinity has
been found detrimental to the survival of bacteria. This method needs the removal of
excess lime from the water before it can be supplied to the general public. Treatment like
recarbonation for lime removal should be used afterdisinfection.
3. Treatment with Ozone: Ozone readily breaks down into normal oxygen, and releases
nascent oxygen. The nascent oxygen is a powerful oxidizing agent and removes the
organic matter as well as the bacteria from thewater.
4. Chlorination: The germicidal action of chlorine is explained by the recent theory of
enzymatic hypothesis, according to which the chlorine enters the cell walls of bacteria
and kill the enzymes which are essential for the metabolic processes of livingorganisms.

Chlorine Chemistry

Chlorine is added to the water supply in two ways. It is most often added as a gas, Cl 2(g).
However, it also can be added as a salt, such as sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) or bleach.
Chlorine gas dissolves in water following Henry's Law.
Cl2(g) Cl2(aq) KH =6.2x10-2
Once dissolved, the following reaction occurs forming hypochlorous acid
(HOCl): Cl2(aq)+H2O HOCl + H++Cl-
Hypochlorous acid is a weak acid that dissociates to form hypochlorite ion (OCl-).
HOCl OCl-+H+ Ka= 3.2x10-8

All forms of chlorine are measured as mg/L of Cl2 (MW = 2 x 35.45 = 70.9 g/mol)
Hypochlorousacid and hypochlorite ion compose what is called the free chlorine residual. These
free chlorine compounds can react with many organic and inorganic compounds to form
chlorinated compounds. If the products of these reactions posses oxidizing potential, they are
considered the combined chlorine residual. A common compound in drinking water systems that
reacts with chlorine to form combined residual is ammonia. Reactions between ammonia and
chlorine form chloramines, which is mainly monochloramine (NH2Cl), although some
dichloramine (NHCl2) and trichloramine (NCl3) also can form. Many drinking water utilities use
monochloramine as a disinfectant. If excess free chlorine exits once all ammonia nitrogen has
been converted to monochloramine, chloramine species are oxidized through what is termed the
breakpoint reactions. The overall reactions of free chlorine and nitrogen can be represented by
two simplified reactions asfollows:

Monochloramine Formation Reaction. This reaction occurs rapidly when ammonia nitrogen is
combinedwith free chlorine up to a molar ratio of 1:1.

HOCl+NH3 NH2Cl+HOCl

Breakpoint Reaction: When excess free chlorine is added beyond the 1:1 initial molar ratio,
monochloramine is removed as follows:
2NH2Cl+HOCl N2(g)+ 3H++3Cl-+H2O

The formation of chloramines and the breakpoint reaction create a unique relationship between
chlorine dose and the amount and form of chlorine as illustrated below.

Free Chlorine, Chloramine, and Ammonia Nitrogen Reactions

Chlorine Demand

Free chlorine and chloramines readily react with a variety compounds, including
organic substances, and inorganic substances like iron and manganese. The
stoichiometry of chlorine reactions with organics can be represented as shown
below:

HOCl:
1/10C5H7O2N+ 4/10CO2 + 1/10HCO3- + 1/10NH4++ H+ + Cl-+1/10H2O

OCl-:
1/10C5H7O2N+OCl- 4/10CO2 + 1/10HCO3- + 1/10NH4++ Cl- +1/10H2O

NH2Cl:
1/10C5H7O2N +NH2Cl+ 4/10CO2 + 1/10HCO3- +11/10NH4++Cl-

Chlorine demand can be increased by oxidation reactions with inorganics, such as

reduced ironat corrosion sites at the pipe wall. Possible reactions with all forms of
chlorine and iron are as follows:

1. A site on a side-hill can facilitate gravity flow that will reduce pumping
requirements and locate normal sequence of units without excessive
excavation orfill.
2. When landscaping is utilized it should reflect the character of the
surrounding area. Site development should alter existing naturally
stabilized site contours and drainage as little as possible.
3. The developed site should be compatible with the existing land uses and
the comprehensive development plan.