2018-19

MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE [Link].

Onwards
(Autonomous) VI Semester
(MR-18)
Code: 80124 L T P
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Credits: 3 3 - -

Prerequisite: Environmental Sciences

Course Objective: To create awareness in Water supply engineering, providing
knowledge about the importance of potable water, treatment methods and the mode of
distribution to the public. Explain about sewerage system, its appurtenances,
treatment methods and disposal techniques with designs aspects.

MODULE I: Introduction and Sources of Water [10 Periods]

Introduction: Waterborne diseases, Need for protected water supply, Population
forecasting methods, design period, Water demand: Types of demand – factors
affecting – fluctuations – fire demand in detail – storage capacity, water quality and
testing, drinking water standards.
Sources of Water: Sources of water and comparison between quality and quantity
and other considerations, Types of Intake, Infiltration galleries, Jack wells, springs,
confined and unconfined aquifers and wells.

MODULE II: Sedimentation and Filtration& Disinfection [10 Periods]

Sedimentation: Sedimentation: Types of sedimentation, principles, uniform settling
velocity, design of sedimentation tank, Coagulation- flocculation Definition and
principles, Types of coagulants, feeding arrangements. Optimum dosage of coagulant-
Jar test
Filtration& Disinfection: Filtration theory/ Principles, Construction and working of
slow and rapid gravity filters, multimedia filters, design of filters, troubles in
operation, comparison of filters, Disinfection – Types of disinfection - Theory of
chlorination - chlorine demand, Residual chlorine test.
MODULE III: Distribution Systems and Joints and Valves [10 Periods]
A. Distribution Systems: Distribution systems, Requirements, methods and Types of
layouts, Design aspects of distribution systems, Equivalent pipe methods and Hardy
Cross method, Service reservoirs.
B. Joints and Valves: Types of Joints, Types of Valves such as sluice valves, air
valves, scour valves and check valves, water meters, laying and testing of pipe lines.

MODULE IV: Conservancy and Water Carriage System [09 Periods]

Definition of sewage, characteristics of sewage, Decomposition of sewage, cycles of
decay examination of sewage – B.O.D, – C.O.D equations. Sewage and storm water
estimation – time of concentration – storm water overflows, combined flow, Sewers
shapes and materials, Design of Sewer, Sewer appurtenances: Manholes – Inverted
siphon – Catch basins – Flushing tanks – Ejectors, pumps and pump houses, house
drainage – components requirements, sanitary fittings-traps, one pipe and two pipe
systems of plumbing.

1
MODULE V: Waste Water Effluent Treatment methods and disposal
[09 Periods]Lay out of Waste
Water Effluent Treatment plant, Primary treatment: Types and classification of screens, grit chambers,
skimming tanks, sedimentation tanks, principles and design of biological treatment: Trickling filters,
standard, high rate Trickling filter and Activated sludge process. Ultimate disposal of sewage, sewage
farming dilution, Sludge digestion tanks – factors affecting – design of Digestion tank
– Sludge disposal by drying – septic tanks, working principles and design, soak pits, design of oxidation
ponds.

TEST BOOKS:

1. G.S. Birdi “Water supply and sanitary Engineeringy”, Dhanpat Rai & Sons Publishers 2010.
2. Dr. [Link], Ashok Jain & Arun Kumar Jain, “Water Supply Engineering”, Vol. I “Waste
water Engineering”, Vol. II, Laxmi Publications [Link], New Delhi 2nd Edition 2016.
3. S.K. Garg, “Water Supply Engineering: Environmental
Engineering” Vol.I Khanna Publications, 2010, New Delhi.

REFERENCES:

1. “Water and Waste Water Technology” by Steel. 2. Metcalf and Eddy 2004.
2. Mark J. Hammer, Sr. Mark J. Hammer “Water and WastewaterTechnology”, 6th
Edition, HDR Engineering, Inc. ©2008;
3. [Link], revised by [Link] & [Link] “WaterSupply and
th
Sanitary Engineering” 14 edition, 2014.

E RESOURCES:
1. [Link]
2. [Link]
3. [Link] pdf-a1288.

Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, students will be able to

1. Recognize the importance of protected water supply, water demand and waterquality.
2. Acquire knowledge about different treatment methods.
3. Identify a source of water for water supply to a town or city with respect to qualityand quantity of
water through distribution system.
4. Understand the sources of sewerage, Estimation and design of sewers and itsappurtenances.
5. Identify the techniques of disposal methods of waste water and sludge.

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 UNIT-I
WATER QUALITY DEMAND SUPPLY

Raw Water Source

The various sources of water can be classified into two categories:
1. Surface sources, such as
a. Ponds and lakes;
b. Streams and rivers;
c. Storage reservoirs; and
d. Oceans, generally not used for water supplies, at present.
2. Sub-surface sources or underground sources, such as
a. Springs;
b. Infiltration wells;and
c. Wells and Tube-wells.

Water Quantity Estimation

The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water supply scheme has to be
designed requires following data:
1. Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in liters per dayper head)
2. Population to be served.
Quantity = per capita demand x Population

Water Consumption Rate

It is very difficult to precisely assess the quantity of water demanded by the public, since there
are many variable factors affecting water consumption. The various types of water demands,
which a city may have, may be broken into following classes:
Water Consumption for Various Purposes:

Types of Consumption Normal Average %

Range
(lit/capita/day)
1 Domestic Consumption 65-300 160 35
2 Industrialand Commercial 45-450 135 30
Demand

3 Public Uses including

20-90 45 10
Fire Demand
4 Losses and Waste 45-150 62 25

Fire Fighting Demand:

The per capita fire demand is very less on an average basis but the rate at which the water is
required is very large. The rate of fire demand is sometimes treated as a function of population
and is worked out from following empirical formulae:

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 Authority Formulae (P in thousand) Q for 1 lakh
Population)
American Insurance Q (L/min)=4637 √P (1-0.01√P) 41760
1
Association
2 Kuching‟s Formula Q (L/min)=3182 √P 31800

Factors affecting per capita demand:

a. Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to that
for smaller towns as big cities have sewered houses.
b. Presence of Industries.
c. Climatic conditions.
d. Habits of people and their economic status.
e. Quality of water: If water is aesthetically & medically safe, the consumption will
increase as people will not resort to private wells etc.
f. Pressure in the distribution system.
g. Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and services; and
unauthorized use of water can be kept to a minimum by surveys.
h. Cost of water.
i. Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged in two different ways: on
the basis of meter reading and on the basis of certain fixed monthly rate.

Fluctuations or Variations in Rate of Demand

Average Daily per Capita Demand= Quantity Required in 12 Months/ (365 x Population)

If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet the fluctuations.

 Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer. Firebreak outs are generally
more in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation.
 Daily variation depends on the activity. People draw out more water on Sundays and
Festival days, thus increasing demand on these days.
 Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During active
household working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the
evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken. During other hours the requirement is
negligible. Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity of water is required to be
supplied during short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of hourly
supply.

So, an adequate quantity of water must be available to meet the peak demand. To meet all the
fluctuations, the supply pipes, service reservoirs and distribution pipes must be properly
proportioned. The water is supplied by pumping directly and the pumps and distribution system
must be designed to meet the peak demand. The effect of monthly variation influences the
design of storage reservoirs and the hourly variations influences the design of pumps and service

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 reservoirs. As the population decreases, the fluctuation rate increases

Design Periods

This quantity should be worked out with due provision for the estimated requirements of the
future. The future period for which a provision is made in the water supply scheme is known as
the design period.
Water supply scheme is usually have an average design period of 30-40 years

Design period is estimated based on the following:

 Useful life of the component, considering obsolescence, wear, tears etc.

 Expandability aspect.
 Anticipated rate of growth of population, including industrial, commercial developments
& migration-immigration.
 Available resources.
 Performance of the system during initial period.

Water Quality
Water is one of the most important material required to sustain life & is considered as the source of human
illness. It is rarely available in nature because it has great tendency to dissolve various substances in it while
flowing on the surface of earth.
• The topic of water quality focuses on the presence of foreign substances in it & their effect on human & other
aquatic life.
• At present more than 85 chemicals are listed in US EPA drinking water standards.
• Where as WHO listed over 100 chemicals in guide lines for drinking water.
• In addition, the public need water that is soft, non-corrosive, free from pathogens & suspended solids.
• Due to inferior quality of water millions of children die every year. In the world under the age of 5years, due
to water born diseases.
• Water quality for one purpose is not good / suitable for other purpose.

Parameters Of Water Quality

There are three parameters of water quality,
1. Physical Parameter.
2. Chemical Parameter.
3. Biological Parameter.
Impurities in water:
All type of water such as surface water, rain water & under ground water contains various impurities because
water has great tendency to dissolve other substances in it. While flowing on surface of earth rain water
collects dust & gases from atmosphere. Surface water dissolve sand, silt, suspended solids, organic matter,
minerals & colloidal matter while flowing on surface. underground water mostly free from suspended solids,
colloidal & organic imparities but it contain various chemicals, minerals & salts. It contain less impurities due
to natural filtration action of underground soil.

Physical Parameters of Water Quality

1. Color
2. Taste & Odor
3. Suspended Solids
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4. Turbidity
5. Temperature
[Link]: color of water is due to presence of colloidal matter, decaying vegetation.
scale of color from 0 to 70 units
Drinking water should not be more than 15 color units.
Normally mineral water available in market have 5 color unit

2. Taste & Odor: Taste & odor of water is due to presence of decomposed organic materials, minerals &
salts of iron & Meneginies (Fe & Mn). Vegetation, chlorine, algae etc.
odor is measured in “Threshold odor number”
pure drinking water is always Taste less & Odor less & also color less.
3. Suspended Solids (SS): SS in the water may be in the form of clay, silt, sand, silica & Calcium
carbonate or they may be in the form of organic matter oils, fats, grease. The SS may easily be removed
by sedimentation & Filtration.
4. Turbidity: it is caused by SS fine insoluble partials, silt, sand, clay & algae. Turbid water does not
allow passage of light which is either scattered or absorbed depending upon the size & surface
characteristic of partial. It also cause undesirable taste & odor to water & affect the process of
photosynthesis for algal growth in lakes & ponds. Completely treated water has turbidity of less than 1 TU
(Turbidity Unit). Clear lake water has 25 TU where as muddy water has >100TU Turbidity is measured
by Jackson turbidity meter. A graduated rod is immersed in surface water to obtain turbidity level.

5. Temperature: Solubility, Viscosity, Portability & Chemical reaction are influenced by temperature.
More quantities of chemicals get dissolved at higher temperature but gases (D.O) are released.
water should not have higher temperature because due to that aquatic life & plants are
threatened/endangered.
Due to rise in temperature of lakes & Rivers, fishes may be die or they have to migrate.

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Chemical Parameters of water Quality
Many organic & inorganic chemicals affect water quality. In drinking water these chemicals affects public
health, where as in surface water it affect to the aquatic life. Most important chemicals are,
1. Acidity, Alkalinity & pH
2. Hardness
3. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
4. Toxic Chemicals
5. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
6. Fluorides
7. Chlorides
8. Sulfates
9. Nitrates
10. Phosphates

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 Biological Parameters of Water Quality
The presence & absence of living organisms in water can be one of
the most useful indicator of the quality of water.
The verity of species (Fishes) present in the lake be a sign of
unpolluted lake.
1. Micro-organisms
2. Bacteria
3. Algae
4. Protozoa
5. Viruses

Indian Standards for Drinking water

Parameter Desirable-Tolerable If no alternative source

available, limit extended up
to

Physical
Turbidity (NTU unit) < 10 25
Colour (Hazen scale) < 10 50
Taste and Odour Un-objectionable Un-objectionable

Chemical
pH 7.0-8.5 6.5-9.2
Total Dissolved Solids 500-1500 3000
mg/l
Total Hardness mg/l (as 200-300 600
CaCO3)
Chlorides mg/l (as Cl) 200-250 1000
Sulphates mg/l (as SO4) 150-200 400
Fluorides mg/l (as F ) 0.6-1.2 1.5

Nitrates mg/l (as NO3) 45 45

Calcium mg/l (as Ca) 75 200
Iron mg/l (as Fe ) 0.1-0.3 1.0

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 Population Forecasting Methods
The various methods adopted for estimating future populations are given below. The particular
method to be adopted for a particular case or for a particular city depends largely on the factors
discussed in the methods, and the selection is left to the discretion and intelligence of the
designer.

1. Arithmetic Increase Method

2. Geometric Increase Method
3. Incremental Increase Method
4. Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
5. Simple Graphical Method
6. Comparative Graphical Method
7. Ratio Method
8. Logistic Curve Method

Population Forecast by Different Methods

Problem: Predict the population for the years 1981, 1991, 1994, and 2001 from the following
census figures of a town by different methods.

Year 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971

Population 6 6 6 7 7 8 9 120
Solution:

Year Population: Increment Increment Percentage Increment

(thousands) per Decade al Increase per Decade
1901 60 - - -
1911 65 +5 - (5+60) x100=+8.33
1921 63 -2 -3 (2+65) x100=-3.07
1931 72 +9 +7 (9+63) x100=+14.28
1941 79 +7 -2 (7+72) x100=+9.72
1951 89 +10 +3 (10+79) x100=+12.66
1961 97 +8 -2 (8+89) x100=8.98
1971 120 +23 +15 (23+97) x100=+23.71
Net values 1 +60 +18 +74.61
Averages - 8.57 3.0 10.66

+=increase; - = decrease

Arithmetical Progression Method:

Pn = P + ni
Average increases per decade = i =
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 8.57 Population for the years,
1981= population 1971 + ni, here n=1 decade
= 120 + 8.57 = 128.57
1991= population 1971 + ni, here n=2 decade
= 120 + 2 x 8.57 = 137.14
2001= population 1971 + ni, here n=3 decade
= 120 + 3 x 8.57 = 145.71
1994= population 1991 + (population 2001 - 1991) x 3/10
= 137.14 + (8.57) x 3/10 = 139.71
Incremental Increase Method:
Population for the years,
1981= population 1971 + average increase per decade + average incremental increase
= 120 + 8.57 + 3.0 = 131.57
1991= population 1981 + 11.57
= 131.57 + 11.57 = 143.14
2001= population 1991 + 11.57
= 143.14 + 11.57 = 154.71
1994= population 1991 + 11.57 x 3/10
= 143.14 + 3.47 = 146.61
Geometric Progression Method:
Average percentage increase per decade = 10.66 P
n = P (1+i/100)n
Population for 1981 = Population 1971 x (1+i/100) n
= 120 x (1+10.66/100), i = 10.66, n = 1
= 120 x 110.66/100 = 132.8

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10
 Intake Structure

The basic function of the intake structure is to help in safely withdrawing water
from the source over predetermined pool levels and then to discharge this water
into the withdrawal conduit (normally called intake conduit), through which it
flows up to water treatment plant.

Factors Governing Location of Intake

1. As far as possible, the site should be near the treatment plant so that the
cost of conveyingwater to the city is less.
2. The intake must be located in the purer zone of the source to draw best
quality water fromthe source, thereby reducing load on the treatment plant.
3. The intake must never be located at the downstream or in the vicinity
of the point ofdisposal of wastewater.
4. The site should be such as to permit greater withdrawal of water, if required at a
future date.
5. The intake must be located at a place from where it can draw water even
during the driestperiod of the year.
6. The intake site should remain easily accessible during floods and should
not get [Link], the flood waters should not be concentrated in
the vicinity of the intake.

Design Considerations

1. Sufficient factor of safety against external forces such as heavy

currents, floatingmaterials, submerged bodies, ice pressure,etc.
2. Should have sufficient self weight so that it does not float by up thrust of water.

Types of Intake

Intake structures are used for collecting water from the surface sources such as river, lake, and
reservoir and conveying it further to the water treatment plant. These structures are masonry or
concrete structures and provides relatively clean water, free from pollution, sand and
objectionable floating material.

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Site Selection for Intake Structures
1. The site should be so selected that it may admit water even under worst condition of flow in the
river. Generally, it is preferred that intake should be sufficiently below the shore line.
2. Site should be very close to treatment plant as possible.
3. It should be so located that it is free from the pollution. It is better to provide intake at upper
stream of city so that water is not contaminated.
4. It should not interfere with river traffic, if any.
5. It should be located where good foundation conditions are available.
6. It should be so located that it admits relatively pure water free from mud, sand and pollutants.
Means it should be protected from rapid currents.
Types of Intake Structures
Intakes are classified under three categories:
Category 1:
1. Submerged intake
2. Exposed intake
Category 2:
1. Wet intake
2. Dry intake
Category 3:
1. River intake
2. Reservoir intake
3. Lake intake
4. Canal intake
1. Submerged Intake Structures
1. It is the one which is constructed entirely under water.
2. It is commonly used to obtain supply from a lake.

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2. Exposed Intake Structures
1. It is in the form of a well or tower constructed near the bank of a river, or in some cases even
away from the river banks.
2. Exposed intakes are more common due to ease in operation.

3. Wet Intake Structures

1. It is a type of intake tower in which the water level is practically the same as the level of the
sources of supply.
2. It is sometimes known as Jack well and is most commonly used.

4. Dry Intake Structures

1. In case of dry intake there is no water in the water tower.
2. Water enters through entry port directly into the conveying pipes.
3. It is simply used for the operation of valves etc.

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5. River Intake Structures
1. It is a type of intake which may either located sufficiently inside the river so that demands of
water are met with in all the seasons of the year, or they may be located near the river bank where
a sufficient depth of water is available.
2. Sometimes, an approach channel is constructed and water is led to the intake tower.
3. If the water level in the river is low, a weir may be constructed across it to raise the water level
and divert it to the intake tower.

6. Reservoir Intake Structures

1. When the flow in the river is not guaranteed throughout the year, a dam is constructed across it to
store water in the reservoir so formed.
2. These are similar to river intake, except that these are located near the upstream face of the dam
where maximum depth of water is available.

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 3. Design of intake may vary based on the type of dam.

7. Lake Intake Structures

1. Generally submerged intakes are preferred for lake intakes.
2. These are constructed as cribs or bell mouths. The cribs are made of heavy timber frame work
which is partly or wholly filled with rip-rap to protect the intake conduit against damage by
waves etc.
3. The top of the crib is covered with cast iron or mesh grating.

8. Canal Intake Structures

1. In some cases, source of water supply to a small town may be an irrigation canal passing
nearer or through the town. Then it will be constructed.
2. Generally it consists of masonry or concrete intake chamber of rectangular shape,

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 admitting water through a coarse screen.
3. A fine screen is provided over the bell mouth entry of the outlet pipe.
4. The intake chamber may be constructed inside the canal bank if it does not offer any
appreciable resistance to normal flow in the canal.
5. It’s preferred to provide lining to the canal near the intake chamber.

An infiltration gallery is a subsurface source of water used for a water supply system whose structure is like
a horizontal drain that is positioned below the water table so that it collects the groundwater. It collects the
subsurface sources of water.

The horizontal drain can be made out of an open jointed pipe or a perforated pipe. The water collected can be
taken to a sump, a storage tank or a collection well.

The important features of infiltration galleries are explained in this article.

Features of Infiltration Galleries

The infiltration galleries work best when it is surrounded by a soil that is surrounded by a sufficiently
permeable soil so that the gallery can easily collect the water. Gravel is one such permeable soil material that
facilitates the flow of water to the infiltration gallery with ease. Gravel also helps trap the large particles that
can result in blocking the perforations.

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Infiltration galleries are constructed in combination with other means of water supply system so as to meet the
increasing water demand. The gallery alone cannot face the demand of a big population.

Generally, one or more galleries are constructed that together connect to a central point like a spring box or a
hand-dug well. Hence these center point water collection structures are called collector wells.

Infiltration galleries are constructed in a way that it is prevented from getting contaminated. A safe distance of
generally 30 meters is maintained from latrines and any contaminated areas. The sage distance is site-specific
and varies with the location.

Infiltration galleries are constructed such that the entry of unfiltered surface water is prevented.

The length of the infiltration galleries varies from meters to kilometers in length depending upon the location
of the collector well.

Construction of Infiltration Gallery

The construction of the infiltration gallery is recommended to perform at the end of the dry season. Also, the
location of the infiltration gallery must be one meter below the dry season water table.

Figure Infiltration gallery

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