BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

Unit 2
What is Biological
molecules?
❑ biomolecule, also called biological
molecule.
❑ A substances that are produced by cells and
living organisms.
❑ Biological molecules have a wide range of sizes
and structures and perform different
functions.
❑ The four major types of biomolecules
❑ Carbohydrates
❑ Lipids
❑ Nucleic acids
❑ Proteins
❑ Biochemistry: the link between the structure
of the molecules and their function.
❑ Biochemical reaction (metabolism)
The building unit of life

1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins What are cells
3. Lipids made out of?
4. Nucleic acid
5. Water
Non-living

A living unit
Basic terms for this chapter

Micro-molecules

Macro-molecules

Monomers

Polymers
 Micro-molecules Macro-molecules
• Small in size • large in size
• Have simple structure • Have complex structure
• Example: • Example:
• Glucose • Starch
• Amino acid • Lipid
• Protein
Monomers

• Single unit or sub-unit

• Small in size
• Example: Glucose, amino acid, fatty
acid.
• Micro-molecules.
Polymers

• Repeating units of identical monomers.

• Joined by chemical bonds.
• Large in size
• All polymers are macro-molecules BUT not
all macro-molecules are polymers
• Insoluble
• Example:
• Polysaccharide (Starch)
• lipid
The building unit of life

1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins What are cells
3. Lipids made out of?
4. Nucleic acid
5. Water
Non-living

A living unit
 What is a
carbohydrates

•Low carb diet (cut

carbs)
• Essential nutrients that human body
turn it into glucose to give the
energy to function.
• Extremely diverse.
• Function based on the structure and
complexity
What makes something a carbohydrate?
• Contain the 3 main elements:
• Carbon
• Hydrogen
• Oxygen
•Ratio of CHO= 1C : 2H : 1 O
•Carbo-> Carbon
•Hydrate-> H2O
•Example: Glucose--> C6H12O6
Classification of Carbohydrates
• Based on the number of units joined together to form the molecules.
• 3 main groups of carbohydrates
1. Mono-saccharide (one)
2. Di-saccharide (two)
3. Poly-saccharides (three)
Saccharide = sugar
Monosaccharide
• Sugar = Sweet taste Triose
•(3C)
• General formula= (C H2 O)n

3 main
groups
Pentose
•(5C)
Hexose
•(6C)
Monosaccharide (Hexose)
• Formula: C6H12O6 Glucose formula

• C6H12O6 -----> is not only for glucose

• Glucose
• Fructose
• Galactose
• All same molecular formula but 3 molecules called
(Isomer)
 Glucose molecules
• Linear structure is not stable
• Ring structure is more stable
• Start numbering C from the right
side
• C 1 and 5 linked with oxygen

• 2 forms:
• Alpha-glucose
• Beta-glucose

• Check C1---> OH group

Function of monosaccharides
in living organisms

• Source of Energy in respiration

• Large no. Of carbons in the glucose
• Break down to form ATP
• To build up large molecules (polysaccharides)
such as Glycogen and cellulose
• Ribose (5C) used for:
• To make RNA
• ATP
DNA
Disaccharides carbohydrates
• 2 monomers linked together by condensation process

• Condensation: removal of water molecule

• by forming of a glycosidic bond (type of covalent bond only found in

carbohydrates))

monosaccharides: Hexose - C6H12O6

• Alpha glucose
• Beta glucose
• Fructose
• Galactose
Disaccharides carbohydrates

Maltose= ɑ-glucose + ɑ-glucose (condensation)(Glycosidic bond)

Sucrose= ɑ-glucose + β-Fructose(condensation)(Glycosidic bond)

Lactose= β-glucose + Galactose (condensation)(Glycosidic bond)

 Formation of disaccharides (Maltose)
a) ɑ-glucose + ɑ-glucose undergo condensation reaction (removal of water
molecule)
b) 1,4 glycosidic bond forms
Example of disaccharides (Maltose)
a) Maltose sugar:

b) not maltose
Example of disaccharides (Sucrose)
Sucrose= ɑ-glucose + β-Fructose

● main component of table sugar

P1 question and common mistake
Molecular formula of Maltose and Sucrose?

Maltose
ɑ-glucose + ɑ-glucose = Maltose
common mistake:

Right formula:
P1 question and common mistake
Molecular formula of Maltose and Sucrose?

Sucrose
ɑ-glucose + β-Fructose = Sucrose
common mistake:

Right formula:
 Hydrolysis
• Opposite to condensation
• Break down large molecules to simpler form
• By adding water molecule
• Disaccharides to monosaccharides
• Catabolic reaction

Example:
Maltose→ ɑ-glucose + ɑ-glucose
Classification of Carbohydrates
• Based on the number of units joined together to form the molecules.
• 3 main groups of carbohydrates
1. Mono-saccharide (one)
2. Di-saccharide (two)
3. Poly-saccharides (three)
Saccharide = sugar
Polysaccharides
Why cell stores carbohydrates in
polysaccharides form?
Polysaccharides

• Many repeating sugar units

• linked together by glycosidic bond
• by condensation (removal of water)
• Broken down by hydrolysis (addition of water)

Examples of polysaccharides:
1. Glycogen is made from α-glucose. Glycogen is branched and consists of many α-glucose monomers.
2. Starch is made from α-glucose. Starch is also made from many α-glucose monomers. There are two types of
starch: amylose(non-branched) and amylopectin (branched).
3. Cellulose is made from β-glucose. Cellulose consists of non-branched β-glucose chains.
 Comparisons table
Starch Cellulose Glycogen

Monomers

Bond between
monomers
Function

Location

Structure

How the
structure leads
to the function
Starch
❏ Formed from 2 polymers of
ɑ-glucose:
❏ Amylose and amylopectin
❏ Found in scratch grain inside
plant cell (Chloroplast)
❏ Function: insoluble storage
of glucose
Starch (Amylose)

condensation reaction

Forms a 1-4 glycosidic

bond
Starch (Amylose)

● Unbranched
condensation reaction
● coiled up to form
Forms a 1-4 glycosidic Helix
bond
Starch (amylopectin)
● Branched form
● Allow the breakdown of Glucose by hydrolysis
● to release glucose for respiration.

1-4 glycosidic bond

Glycogen
● Formed by ɑ-glucose

● found only in animal cells

● Muscle and liver cells
● where respiration is needed

● Function: insoluble form - glucose storage

Glycogen ● Highly branched form
● Allow the breakdown of Glucose by
hydrolysis
● to release glucose for respiration.

1-4 glycosidic bond

Cellulose
● formed from polymer of β-Glucose

● found only in plant cells

● Cell wall component

*function- Provides structural strength to cell wall

* Fully permeable
Cellulose structure

● β-Glucose ● β-Glucose
 ● long straight chains lie
Cellulose parallel held together by
many hydrogen bonds.
● to form fibril
● * Hydrogen bonds are weak.
due to the large number
collectively they provide the
strength
● Forms the criss-cross shape
Biological molecules
Chapter 2
What is the cell made out of?

The non-living molecules

combine to form a living
unit, Cell.
Monomers, polymers, and macromolecules
Macromolecule: a large/giant molecule such as a polysaccharide, protein or nucleic acid

Polymer is a giant molecule made from many similar repeating subunits joined together in a chain.

How are macromolecules different from polymers?

 Carbohydrates
The general formula for a carbohydrate can be written as
Cx(H2O)y.
Carbohydrates are divided into three main groups:
• monosaccharides,
• disaccharides and
• polysaccharides.
The word ‘saccharide’ means a sugar or sweet substance.
Monosaccharides are sugars
• They have the general formula (CH2O)n. The main types of
monosaccharides (when classified according to the number of
carbon atoms in each molecule) are
• trioses (3C),
• pentoses (5C) and
• hexoses (6C).
Molecular and structural formulae

glucose
Hexose fructose
galactose

• The molecular formula for a hexose can be written

as C6H12O6.
Monosaccharides have two major functions.

First, they are commonly used as a source of energy in respiration due to the large
number of carbon– hydrogen bonds which can be broken to release a lot of energy,
which is transferred to help make ATP (adenosine triphosphate) from ADP
(adenosine diphosphate) plus phosphate during the process of respiration.

Second, monosaccharides are important as building blocks for larger molecules.

 Disaccharide

Two monosaccharides linked together by condensation forming a

glycosidic bond. The three most common disaccharides are
• maltose (glucose + glucose),
• sucrose (glucose +fructose) and
• lactose (glucose + galactose).
Polysacharrides many repeating sugars linked together by a glycosidic bond.

Starch is energy storage molecule in plants

Glycogen is energy storage molecule in animals

Why do plants convert glucose into starch?

Glucose is soluble and can affect the water potential of the cell. It can also diffuse out of the chloroplast
and the cell which can interupt with chemical reactions around.
When converted to starch it becomes too large to diffuse and also insoluble
• Define a monosaccharide and give two examples?
• Outline the structural differences between α-glucose and β-glucose?
• Explain how the glycosidic bond is formed between two glucose
molecules?
 Starch is a mixture of two substances – amylose and
amylopectin.

Amylose :
• made out of alpha glucose
• contains alpha 1,4 glycosidic bonds only
• Helical/spiral shape
 Amylopectin:
• made out of alpha glucose
• contains alpha 1,4 and alpha 1,6 glycosidic bonds
• branched
 Glycogen
• made out of alpha glucose
• contains alpha 1,4 and alpha 1,6 glycosidic bonds
• branched (more branched than amylopectin because it contains more alpha
1,6 glycosidic bonds)
 Cellulose: a polysaccharide made from betaglucose subunits;
• Used as a strengtheningmaterial in plant cell walls.
• Joined together by beta-1,4 glycosidic bond.
• Linear shape ( some beta glucose molecules have to rotate 180 degrees
to keep this linear shape.
 Cellulose molecules can be joined together by hydrogen bond to form cellulose microfibril (a bundle
of about 60-70 cellulose molecule)
Cellulose microfibril can also be joined together by hydrogen bond to form cellulose fibres (as found
in plant cell walls)
• rigid
• high tensile strength

Cellulose’s linear shape is important because it can be packed into a small space to form microfibrils
and fibres which are stronger.
Phospholipid
• 2 fatty acid chains
• 1Glycerol
• Phosphate ion(PO4)-3
• Amphipathic
• (polar & non-polar)
• Hydrophilic and hydrophobic
• Cell membrane
 Protein
Biological molecule
2.6
What is protein?
How does it work?
 Protein •
•
Hair (Keratin)
Skin (Collagen)

Functions •
•
RBC (Haemoglobin)
Muscle (actin & myosin)
• Build up muscle • Saliva (Amylase)
• Tissue repair • Antibodies
• growth and • Protein- based
development hormones(insulin & glucagon)
• protein storage (casien in milk)
 Amino acid
• Building unit of protein (monomers)
• 20 different amino acids
• Different combinations --> different functional
protein
• Consist of -->. C,H,O,N
• All 20 amino acids have the same basic structure
Do you have to memories 20 different
amino acid?
Basic structure of amino acid
R-group

Amino group Carboxylic group

NH2 COOH

Central carbon
Example of 3 different amino acids
R- group is variable

Glycine Alanine Serine

(Gly) (Ala) (Ser)
Formation of di-peptide

H H
 Example of dipeptide (peptide bond)

Glycine(Gly) Alanine(Ala)
Peptide *Peptide bond will always form
between:
bonds • Carboxylic group of one
amino acid
• Amino group of another amino
acid
• R-group will not be involved
in peptide bonding
Find possible peptide bonds
 Level of structural organization of protein

Each structure is made up from amino acid

look different
Carry out different functions
 Primary Example
Polypeptide chain A
structure
Polypeptide chain B

• A polypeptide chain
• made up of a sequence
Are these two chains similar?
of amino acid
• linked together by
peptide bond. • Different primary structure
• Length of the chain different
• different amino acid linked
Example of primary structure protein
 Secondary
structure
• A polypeptide chain
• made up of a sequence
of amino acid
• Polypeptide chain has
formed coils or folds
within itself.
what causes the coiling
or folding?
Secondary structure
representation
 Tertiary structure
• Refers to the 3-D arrangement of a polypeptide chain that has assumed
its secondary structure.
• When a polypeptide is folded into a precise shape.

• The polypeptide is held in ‘bends’ and ‘tucks’ in a permanent shape by a

range of bonds including:
• Disulphide bridges (sulphur–sulphur bonds)
• Hydrogen bonds
• Ionic bonds.
• Weak Hydrophobic bond
What causes the polypeptide chain to further fold to
form 3-D shape?
• interaction between R-groups of amino acids
 Hydrophobic interaction
(weak bond)
- Hydrophobic interactions occur between non-polar
molecules or regions in water.

- Water molecules prefer to bond with polar substances,

excluding non-polar molecules.

- Non-polar (hydrophobic) molecules cluster together

to minimize water contact.

- These interactions are important for protein folding and

cell membrane formation.
Disulphide bridge (strong bond)
Forms between two cysteine
molecules
-Broken down by reducing
agent
 Quaternary protein structure
• A protein made up from 2 or more polypeptide chains

Eg: insulin hormone:

• 2 polypeptide chains are needed
Primary structure

Secondary structure

Tertiary structure

Tertiary structure
 Quaternary protein structure
• Made up of 2 or more polypeptide chains
• Each polypeptide chain in the quaternary structure is referred
to as a subunit of the protein
• The chains interact by :
Hydrogen bonds
Ionic bonds
Weak hydrophobic bonds
Disulphide bridges
 Protein types:
• Globular protein
• Fibrous protein

hydrophilic amino
acid face outside and • Doesn’t interact with water
interact with water • forms a thread-like structure
hydrophobic amino
acid curl inward to
avoid water
form a ball-like
structure
 Globular protein Metabolic functions :
-Enzymes (subsrate)
characteristics -Haemoglobin (binds oxygen)
-Antibodies (binds to antigen)
• Soluble in water
(hydrophilic)
• Spherical/ball shape (not
circular-not 3D)
• Have metabolic functions
Haemoglobin (Globular protein)
-Haemoglobin is not red blood cell
-Haemoglobin is a protein in RBC
-Around 260 million haemoglobin
molecules in on RBC
 Haemoglobin (Globular protein)
• -Haemoglobin consists of 4 polypeptide chains
(haem group for each)
￭ Each chain called globin
￭ 2 beta globin
￭ 2 alpha globin
• bonds involved to form the globular structure:
￭ Hydrogen bonds
￭ ionic bonds
￭ disulfide bridges
￭ Hydrophobic weak bonds
 Fibrous protein Structural functions
-Keratin (hair & nail)
characteristics -Collagen (Skin & blood vessels)
-Elastin (airways & Blood vessels)
Insoluble in water
(hydrophobic)
Thread-like
Not involved in metabolic

Structural functions
 Collagen (fibrous protein)
-Collagen consists of 3 polypeptide chains
Each chain in helix shape
Forms triple-helix (Spiral)
Different primary structures
Every 3rd amino acids Glycine
Covalent binds forms between the R group of amino
acid lying next to each other.
Cross-likes hold many collagen molecules side by side
forming fibrils
The ends of the parallel molecules are staggered
Hydrogen bond,
dipolar and water
Chapter 2
 • Water is the main constituent in all organisms
• A water molecule is dipolar because it has a positive and a
negative pole as a result of the uneven distribution of
electrons within it
Key concepts • The dipole nature within a water molecule creates attractive
forces known as hydrogen bonding, allowing them to stick
together
• One of the many types of properties water has is a high
specific heat capacity, meaning it takes a lot of energy to
heat up a given mass of water
• A high number of hydrogen bonding in water molecules also
means it requires a lot of an energy to evaporate one gram of
water. The energy is called the latent heat of vaporisation
• Water is also used to break many complex molecules down
by hydrolysis for example; disaccharide carbohydrates
broken down into monosaccharides
  Water = H2O Uneven distribution
Hydrogen
bond and  Drawing:

polarity
  Important biological molecule
 60-70% of human body
 Water is a dipolar molecule
 Water has uneven distribution of charges
 Oxygen atom is slightly negative
Water  Hydrogen atoms are slightly positive
structure  The delta (𝛅)symbol indicate the +ive and –ive
 ➢Hydrogen bonds forms between oxygen
and hydrogen
➢As a result, water is dipolar
5 key
5 properties:
properties of
[Link] is a metabolite
water [Link] solvent
[Link] heat capacity
[Link] latent heat of vaporization
[Link] cohesion
 - Water involved in chemical reaction:
1. Photosynthesis
2. Hydrolysis
3. Condensation

- Important component of the cytoplasm

- 90% of the plasma in blood
Metabolite
 ❖Many substances dissolve in water.
❖Due to the polarity (dipolar).
❖The slight positive charge on Hydrogen atom attract any
negative ions (solute)
❖The slight negative charge on Oxygen atom attract any
positive charge ions (solute).
Good solvent -Such examples of charged polar molecules such as
salts, amino acids and sugars are able to readily
dissolved in water.
-They are termed as hydrophilic; “water-loving”
molecules. Non-polar molecules such as lipids are
termed as hydrophobic, “water-hating”.
How does
table salt
dissolve in
water?
 [Link]
  The tendency of water molecules to stick
together is known as cohesion. Hence it
would take a lot of heat energy to separate
molecules that are stuck together rather
than if they were not bonded together.
High heat
capacity  what keeps aquatic and
cellular environments stable

 Enzymes activities – optimum

(no denaturation)
 ❑ Hydrogen bonding between the water
molecules allows it to have a high latent
heat of vaporisation.
High Latent ❑ Large amount of energy is needed to
heat of change water from a liquid state into a
Vaporisation gaseous state.
❑ Evaporation has a cooling effect on
organisms such as sweating in animals
and transpiration in plants