Microscope

Biology
 ➢ ALL organisms are made up of cells
➢ Simplest collection of LIVING matter
➢ Cell structure correlate to their functions (specialized)
➢ During the 20th century, scientists studying the cells of bacteria, plants and
animals
➢ Small and simple cell; genetic material (DNA) BUT with no membrane
• Prokaryotes eg: Bacteria

Cells ➢

•
Large and complex; genetic materials inside the nucleus surrounded by
double membrane (nuclear envelop)
Eukaryotes: plants and fungi

➢ Eukaryotes evolved from Prokaryotes more than billion years ago.

Microscope
Magnification
Resolution
Resolution
 •Light microscope
- Poor resolution due to the long wavelength of the light
- Living samples can be examined and a color image is obtained

Microscope Transmission Electron Microscope:

types - High magnification and resolution
- Electrons pass through the specimen to create an image

Scanning Electron Microscope:

- High magnification and resolution
- Electrons bounce off the surface of the specimen to create an image
Light microscope
 • Tiny organelles can't be seen under light microscope
• Electrons used instead
• Electrons have a very short wavelength
• Electrons have both properties as particles and waves.
• Resolution is 2000 times better.
• Beam of electrons
• Vacum so electrons pass through without bouncing off the
Electron molecules in air
microscope •
•
Electrons are -ive charge
Electromagnetic lenses
• Image is produced on a fluorescent screen
 SEM
(RBC)

Types of
Electron
microscope

TEM
(RBC in
capillary)
 Microscope Resolut Magnificatio
Key Features
Type ion n
Uses visible light and
glass lenses to magnify
specimens. Suitable for
Light ~200
Up to 1,500x observing live cells and
Microscope nm
tissues. Limited by the
wavelength of visible
light.
Microscope Passes electrons through a

types Transmission
Electron
~0.1 nm
Up to
thin specimen. Produces
highly detailed 2D images
Microscope 1,000,000x of internal structures.
(TEM) Requires vacuum and
specimen preparation.
Scans the surface with a
beam of electrons.
Scanning
Produces 3D images of
Electron ~1–20 Up to
the surface. Useful for
Microscope nm 200,000x
studying surface
(SEM)
morphology. Requires
vacuum.
 Units of measurement:
- The international system of units must be used (SI unit)
- Be familiar
- Symbol
- Conversion
Unit Symbol
centimeter cm
millimeter mm
Measuring size micrometer µm
and nanometer nm
calculations
- The smallest visible structure with the human eye 50 – 100µm
(Roughly the sharp end of the pin)
- Cell body very small 5-40 µm
- Bacteria 1 µm
- Smallest structure studied is the ribosome 25 nm
- Line up about 20k ribosome across the full stop
Measuring size
and Example:

calculations An image of an animal cell is 30 mm in size and it has been magnified by a factor of X
3000.
What is the actual size of the cell?
 Example:
An image of an animal cell is 30 mm in size and it has been magnified by a factor of X
3000.
What is the actual size of the cell?

•Image size = 30 mm
•Magnification = 3000

Measuring size Now, calculate:

and Actual size= 30 mm / 3000=0.01 mm

calculations To convert millimetres to micrometres (µm), recall that:

1 mm=1000 µm.
So:

0.01 mm=0.01×1000 µm=10 µm

Thus, the actual size of the cell is 10 µm.
 • Eye piece Graticule
• -Inside light microscopes, there is a scale on a glass disc which is called Eyepiece graticule.

• Used to measure the size of objects you are viewing under the microscope
• each time you change the objective lens and magnification power, you have to
calibrate the eyepiece.
• The calibration is done using a stage micrometre, this is a slide with a very accurate known

Measuring size •
scale in micrometres (µm)
The eyepiece graticule is a disc placed in the eyepiece with 100 divisions, this has no scale

and
calculations
Worked example

0.25 x (1000) / 100 = 2.5

µm

20 x 2.5 = 50
µm
 Worked example

20 x 2.5 = 50
µm

50 mm x 1000 = 50 000 µm

Magnification = Image / Actual

= 50 000 µm / 80 µm
= x 625
z
Cell structure
z
The cell

● * Basic unit of life

● Biochemical reactions
● 20th century, scientists studying the cells of bacteria, plants and
animals.
● Found two types of cells
● 1: simple and has DNA with no nucleus (Prokaryotic cell)
● 2: complex and DNA inside the nucleus (Eukaryotic cell)
 z
Prokaryotes

●Prokaryote- a simple organism e.g.

Bacteria
● NO true nucleus
● * No membrane-bound organelles
● * has cell wall
● Circular DNA
● Common cell structures: Plasma
membrane, Cytoplasm, DNA and
ribosomes
 Eukaryotes
z

● Eukaryote- large and

complex cells e.g, plant and
animal cells
● Have true nucleus
● Complex organelles
● Membrane-bound organelles
● Common features found:
Nucleus, lysosome,
chloroplast, vacuoles,
endoplasmic reticulum and
many more.
Features that animal and plant cells have in common
 Features that animal and plant cells have in
common

1- Cell surface membrane :

● Holds the cell content
● Controls what comes in and out of the cell
● Structural forms
● Cell recognition
● Adhesion
● Transport of substances
● Endo/exocytosis
2- Nucleus:
➢ Contains chromosome / DNA
➢ Codes for protein synthesis
➢ Controls the function of the cell
➢ Deeply stained material called Chromatin (coiled threads)
➢ Contains nucleolus: loops of DNA from several chromosomes (deep stain) to
make ribosomes.
 Features that animal and plant cells have in
common

3- Cytoplasm:
● All living material inside the cell called Protoplasm (Nucleus + cytoplasm)
● The liquid where all cell metabolic activities take place.
● Contains functional organelles (little organs)

4- Mitochondria:
➢ Produces energy in ATP form by aerobic respiration
➢ Visible under light microscope.
 z
Differences between animal and plant
cells
Found only in animal cells:

Centrioles:
- Visible under light microscope
- Appears as a small structure near
by the nucleus
 z
Differences between animal and plant
cells
Found only in Plant cells:

Cell wall and plasmodesmata

• Permeable
• Outside the cell membrane
• Rigid contains fibers of cellulose,
polysaccharides which strengthen the cell
wall.
• Prevent bursting
• Plasmodesmata: structure that links the
neighboring cells by means of pores contain
fine strands of cytoplasm.
• Lined with the cell surface membrane
 z
Differences between animal and plant
cells
Found only in Plant cells:

Vacuoles Chloroplast
• Specialized in photosynthesis
• Sac like structure
process
• Enclosed membrane
• Larger than mitochondria
compartment- filled with water/
• Has double membrane
enzymes/ protein etc.
• Found mainly in leaves
• storage of waste and harmful
• Grana: tiny grains contain the
products
chlorophyll pigment
• Water storage
• Hydrostatic pressure control
• Work with the cell to maintain cell
turgidity
• The membrane around it:
Tonoplast
z
Prokaryotic cells
Structure of Bacteria

•Circular DNA

•Found in a nucleoid (region), not membrane-bound like

eukaryotes.

•May contain multiple copies in one cell.

 Structure of Bacteria
Ribosomes:
• Smaller, 70S ribosomes (compared to 80S in
eukaryotes).

Flagellum:

• Some bacteria possess flagella for

movement.
• Simpler structure compared to eukaryotic
flagella.
• Moves with a corkscrew-like motion.
Structure of Bacteria

Infolding of Cell Surface

Membrane:
• Some bacteria have infolded
membranes for biochemical
reactions (e.g., nitrogen fixation or
photosynthesis).
 Structure of Bacteria

Capsule:

• Protective polysaccharide layer

outside the cell wall.
• Helps bacteria resist drying out and
antibiotics.
Structure of Bacteria

Plasmid:
• Small, circular DNA separate from
chromosomal DNA.
• Often carries genes for antibiotic
resistance.

Pili:
• Hair-like structures that aid in
bacterial attachment and genetic
material transfer.
Virus
 Viruses: Structure and Characteristics

What Are Viruses?

•Tiny particles, significantly smaller than bacteria.

•Exist on the boundary between living and non-living entities.

•Do not have a cellular structure (no cytoplasm, membrane,

or ribosomes).

•Simple structure: a self-replicating molecule of DNA or

RNA enclosed in a protein coat called a capsid.

•Some viruses have an additional phospholipid envelope.

Size:
Viruses range in size from 20 nm to 300 nm, roughly 50
times smaller than most bacteria.
Viruses: Structure and Characteristics

Capsid Structure:
The capsid is made up of separate protein molecules
called capsomeres.
Viruses often have a very symmetrical shape due to this arrangement.

Envelope (Optional):
Some viruses have an outer envelope composed of phospholipids,
which originates from the host cell membrane.

Proteins may project from the envelope to assist with infection.

Parasitic Nature:
All viruses are obligate parasites, meaning they can only reproduce by
infecting and hijacking a host cell’s machinery to make new virus
particles.
 AS Level
Chapter 1
Cell Structure
 Chapter Outline
Part 1: Microscopy
• Magnification vs Resolution
• Light Microscope vs Electron Microscope

Part 2: Micrometry: How do we measure cells?

• Calibrating EPG using the Stage Micrometer (Practical 1)
• Magnification

Part 3: Cell Structure and Function

• Organelles
• Animal vs Plant cells
• Eukaryotes vs Prokaryotes
• Viruses
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 LIGHT

MICROSCOPY MICROSCOPES
AND ELECTRON
MICROSCOPES

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Types of Microscopes

• Electromagnetic radiation
(light / electrons)
→ Image of specimen

1. Light microscope
2. Electron microscope
a) Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM)
b) Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM)

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Magnification and Resolution
1) Magnification
• Number of times an image is enlarged,
compared with the actual size of the object
• “x” sign placed in front of number

2) Resolution
• Ability to distinguish between two points clearly as
separate
• Units in nm

Increase in magnification ≠ increase in resolution

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

Magnification

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Resolution

High resolving power Low resolving power

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 What determines resolution?
• Range of electromagnetic radiations
of different wavelengths
→ Electromagnetic spectrum

• Shorter wavelength used

→ Higher resolving power
→ Wavelength of visible light is longer than of an electron
→ Ability to distinguish between two points is lower

• Max resolution is the…

→ Shortest distance between 2 separate points
→ The max resolution = ½ wavelength used
→ Shorter wavelength = higher max resolution = lower resolution
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Resolution
For example:
• Max resolution is the…
→ Shortest distance between 2 separate points
• The max resolution = ½ wavelength used

• Wavelength of visible light = 400-700nm

• Max resolution of a light microscope = 200nm

• If closer/smaller than 200nm, points cannot be distinguished

as separate
• Can a ribosome (smallest organelle) of 25nm be seen?

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Light Microscope
• Source of electromagnetic radiation: Visible light
- Wavelength = approx. 400-700nm
- Lower energy and longer wavelength than electrons
- Focused using mirrors and glass lenses

• Highest magnification: x1,500

• Max resolution : 200nm (low)

• Advantage: Live specimens can be

viewed, image can be coloured

Used for viewing structures that can be

measured in µm
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Electron Microscope
• Source of electromagnetic radiation: Free electrons
- Wavelength = approx. 1 nm
- High energy, very short wavelength
- Must be in a vacuum environment so electron can
travel in straight lines
- Use electromagnetic lenses

• Highest magnification: x250,000

• Max resolution: 0.5 nm (high)

• Disadvantage: Only dead material can

be examined in vacuum, images are black
and white

Used for viewing structures that can be

measured in nm Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Types of Electron Microscopes
a) Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM)
b) Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM)

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Transmission Electron Microscopes
• Beam of electrons
• Pass through (transmit) specimen
before being viewed

• 2D appearance

• Details inside cells

→ Internal structures
→ Membranes within internal
structures

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Scanning Electron Microscopes
• Lower resolution compared to TEM

• Scan surfaces of specimens

• 3D appearance

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

Q: List the differences between a light microscope and an electron
microscope. [4]

This is how you should ALWAYS present your answer to compare/contrast

between 2 things.

Features Light Microscope Electron Microscope

E.g. Highest Lower Higher
magnification of
microscope

• 4 marks = 4 points (1 mark is for table plus 1 just in case)

• DO NOT tick or cross in the box.
• Use comparative language.
• Make your “Feature” as specific as possible.
(e.g. instead of magnification, write highest magnification of microscope)
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
Q: List the differences between a light microscope and an electron
microscope. [4]

A:
Features Light Microscope Electron Microscope
Type of radiation Light Electrons
Radiation travels through Air Vacuum
Longer Shorter
Wavelength of radiation
400-700 nm 1 nm
Highest magnification of Lower Higher
microscope x1500 x250,000
Max. resolution of Lower Higher
microscope 200 nm 0.5 nm
State of specimen Live Dead

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

MICROMETRY HOW DO WE
MEASURE CELLS?

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

Units
• SI unit for length → metre (m)

Suitable units for…

• Light microscope = micrometre (μm)
• Electron microscope = nanometre (nm)

Note:
• Always measure image length in mm !!!
• Present the actual diameter of structure in μm
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
How do we measure cells?
Eyepiece graticule (EPG) is
on the eyepiece lens

Stage micrometer is
placed on the stage

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

How do we measure cells?
Two components needed:
• The stage micrometer
Shows the true value of length
(Usually 10mm in length with 100 small divisions)
Appears bigger when magnification increases

• The eyepiece graticule (EPG)

Shows 100 graticule units (100 EPG) which are in arbitrary units
Appears constant no matter the magnification

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 (appears constant)

(appears larger)
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
How do we measure cells?
Two Steps:
1. Calibrate the EPG with the stage micrometer
• 1 EPG = __?___div = __?__ µm

2. Use the EPG to measure cell/structure

• 1 cell = ___?__ EPG =__?__ µm

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

1. Calibrate the EPG with the stage micrometer
1 EPG = __?___div = __?__ µm

Eyepiece Graticule

mm
Stage Micrometer
15 EPG = 10 div = 0.1 mm
1 EPG = 0.1 mm/15
= 100 μm/15
= 6.67 μm
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
2. Use the EPG to measure cell/structure
1 cell = ___?__ EPG =__?__ µm

Diameter of cell = 11 EPG

1 EPG = 6.67μm
Diameter of cell = 11 EPG * 6.67μm
= 73.37 μm
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
Now you try! 1. Calibrate the EPG with the stage micrometer
1 EPG = __?___div = __?__ µm
Q: Given that 100 divisions of the stage micrometer measures 1mm,
calibrate the EPG.

Hint 1: the stage micrometer could be magnified under the microscope

Hint 2: 10 EPG is marked 1 here!

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

Q: Given that 100 divisions of the stage micrometer measures 1mm,
calibrate the EPG.

A:
100div = 1mm
1div = 0.01mm
= 10µm

50 EPG = 10div
50 EPG = 10 * 10µm
= 100µm
1 EPG = 100µm / 50
= 2µm
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Magnification

• Number of times an image is enlarged,

compared with the actual size of the object
• Formula:
𝐈
𝐌=
𝐀

Remember to convert all measurements to the same units!

Pro tip:
1. Convert
2. Substitute
3. Calculate
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Exercise
Q: On an electromicrograph, a mitochondrion measures 36mm in
length.

If the magnification of the micrograph is x30,000,

what are the actual length of this organelle in µm?

M = x30,000
I = 36mm = 36*1000 μm = 36000 μm
A=I/M 1. Convert
= 36000 μm / 30 000
2. Substitute
= 1.20 µm
3. Calculate
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Exercise
Q: Given that the magnification of this electron micrograph is
x20,000, calculate the actual length of this mitochondria.

60mm

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Exercise
Q: Given that the magnification of this electron micrograph is
x200,000, calculate the actual length of this mitochondria.

M = x20,000

I = 60mm = 60 * 1000 μm
= 60,000 μm

A=I/M
= 60,000 μm / 20000
= 3 μm
1. Convert
2. Substitute
3. Calculate
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Exercise
Q: This is a micrograph taken by an electron microscope of the
egg of an Aedes mosquito.

What is the magnification of this image?

You need to physically measure the scale bar!

A = 200nm
I (measured) = 13mm = (13*1000*1000)nm
= 13000000nm
M=I/A
= 13000000 / 200
= x65,000
Magnification should always have a ‘x’
in front and expressed in whole numbers
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
CELL STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTION
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Cell Structure and Function
Organelles
• Functionally and structurally distinct part of a cell
• Surrounded by membranes
• For compartmentalization
– So that reactions do not interfere with each other
– Each has separate, specific function

Ultrastructure of cells
• Not necessarily surrounded by membranes
• Detailed structures of a cell
• Only can be seen under an electron microscope
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
Two types of cells: Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes
on the Tree of Life

Let’s talk about this

type of cells first!

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 List of Eukaryotic Cell Structures
Plant + Animal Cells included!
You need to:
1) Name it 2) Recognise it 3) Know its function

1. Cell surface membrane 9. Chloroplast

2. Nucleus, nuclear envelope and 10. Cell wall
nucleolus 11. Plasmodesmata
3. Ribosomes 12. Vacuole and tonoplast
4. RER 13. Centrioles
5. SER 14. Microtubules
6. Golgi body 15. Cilia
7. Lysosomes 16. Microvilli
8. Mitochondria

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Electromicrograph of a cell
You should learn to identify the main organelles visible here!
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 1. Cell Surface Membrane
• Plasma membrane
• ~7 nm thick
• Seen as three layers at x100,000
→ Trilaminar appearance
• Partially permeable
• Made of phospholipid bilayer

Function:
Controls movement of substances into
and out of the cell

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

2. Nucleus
• Largest organelle!
• Has double membranes

General Function:
• Contains genetic information
for the synthesis of proteins
• Site of transcription of genes and
production of mRNA
• DNA is protected from
degradation by enzymes

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

Components:
1. Nuclear envelope
2. Nucleus
• Attached to ER
• 2 membranes
• Have nuclear pores
• Function: Controls movement of
substances between nucleus and
cytoplasm

2. Nucleolus
• Densest region
• Function: Site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis
→ Site of ribosome assembly

3. Chromatin = DNA and its associated proteins

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
3. Ribosomes
• Smallest organelle!
• Not bound by a membrane
• Made of rRNA, that is synthesized in
nucleolus + some protein
• Has 2 subunits

Function:
• Site of protein synthesis

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

3. Ribosomes
Two types:
1. 80S ribosomes are
• 25nm (rmb this!)
• Larger
• Found in cytoplasm and RER
of all eukaryotes

2. 70S ribosomes are

• 18nm
• Smaller
• Found in mitochondria and
chloroplasts of eukaryotes
• Found in all prokaryotes
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 4. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Extensive, connected system of membranes
• Made of cisternae (flattened membrane sacs)
• Continuous with the nuclear envelope
• Running through the cytoplasm
• 80S ribosomes are attached

Functions:
• Site of protein synthesis,
• protein modification
e.g. protein folding
e.g. glycosylation = addition of carbohydrate chains to protein
• protein transport to Golgi

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 5. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• ER without ribosomes

Function:
• Site of lipid and steroid synthesis
e.g. cholesterol, steroid hormones

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 6. Golgi body
• Golgi apparatus / complex
• Made of cisternae
• Have layered appearance
• No connection between members
• Not continuous with nuclear envelope

• Swellings at end of sacs for vesicle formation

• Constantly being formed and broken down
→ Being formed by: Transport vesicles from RER on cis face
→ Broken down to form: Secretory vesicles and lysosomes on trans face

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

6. Golgi body
Functions:
• Modification of proteins and lipid
E.g. glycosylation
phosphorylation = addition of phosphate gp to proteins
cutting / folding proteins

• Packaging molecules into vesicles for transport

• Formation of secretory vesicles for release of protein out of
the cell
• Formation of lysosomes

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

Production and Secretion of Proteins

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

Production and Secretion of Proteins

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

Production and Secretion of Proteins
List the cell structures involved in sequence:
OUT

Steps:
1. Synthesis of protein at ribosome / RER
2. Transport vesicle buds off RER and fuses with Golgi body
3. Modification of protein at Golgi body
4. Separation of a secretory vesicle from the Golgi body
5. Fusion of the vesicle with the cell surface membrane
6. Contents released / secretion of protein by exocytosis

Process also works to embed a protein at the cell membrane.

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Exercise
[CIE, June 2013, P13, Q5]
When mucus is secreted from a goblet cell in the trachea, these
events take place.

1. addition of carbohydrate to protein

2. fusion of the vesicle with the plasma membrane
3. secretion of a glycoprotein
4. separation of a vesicle from the Golgi apparatus

What is the sequence in which these events take place?

A: 1 → 4 → 2 → 3
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 7. Lysosomes
• Very, very small
• Spherical, small sacs

Function:
Contains hydrolytic enzymes / lysozymes
• Breakdown unwanted structures via hydrolysis in an acidic enviro
→ Worn out organelles or dead cells
• In WBC, lysozymes digest bacteria
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 8. Mitochondria
• Relatively large organelle
• Has double membranes
• Cristae = folded inner membrane
• Matrix = interior solution
• Contain 70S ribosomes and
small circular DNA
• Divide by binary fission
→ Have prokaryotic origin

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

8. Mitochondria
Functions:
• Site of aerobic respiration
→ synthesize ATP/produce energy
in the form of ATP
→ release energy

Please DO NOT write

“Mitochondria produces energy”
“Mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell”
-.-

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

8. Mitochondria
Label the following electron micrograph of an animal cell.

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

8. Mitochondria
Q: Why are these mitochondria
shaped so differently?

A:

One is a longitudinal cross section and

the other is a transverse cross section!
Also shape may sometimes vary.

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

9. Chloroplasts
• Relatively large organelle
• Oval shaped
• Two membranes
• Contain chlorophyll
• Thylakoid = flattened
membrane sacs
• Grana = thylakoid stacks
• Stroma = interior solution

• Contains 70S ribosomes, small circular DNA and starch grains

• Divide by binary fission
→ Have prokaryotic origin

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

9. Chloroplasts

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

9. Chloroplasts

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

9. Chloroplast
Function:
• Site of photosynthesis

Two main processes in photosynthesis:

1. Light-dependent reaction (aka “light reaction”)
• Light energy absorbed and water is used to synthesise ATP

2. Light-independent reaction (aka “dark reaction”)

• ATP used to convert CO2 into glucose

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 10. Cell Wall
• Thick, rigid layer
• Made of cellulose
• Permeable
• Bcs there are spaces / gaps
between fibres

Functions:
• Provide structural support
• Prevent bursting
• Limit cell size

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 11. Plasmodesmata
• Strands of cytoplasm passing
through channels

Functions:
• Allows substances to pass
• From cell to cell
• Without passing through cell walls
E.g. water, sucrose, amino acids, minerals ions, ATP

• Allows more rapid transport of substances

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 12. Vacuoles and
Tonoplast
• Commonly found in plant cells
• Large, permanent, central
• Surrounded by a partially permeable
membrane called tonoplast

Functions:
• Store of cell sap (contains water, ions,
minerals, salts, pigments, sugars)
• Stores waste products
• Pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell
• Gives turgidity to the cell
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
12. Vacuoles and
Tonoplast

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

13. Centrioles and Centrosomes
• Centrioles are cylindrical
• Made of 9 groups of 3 microtubules
• Not found in plant cells

Functions of Centrioles:
• Involved in cell division
→ Replicates before each cell division and moves to opposite poles
→ Centrioles are found in pairs at right angles (90o) from each other
→ Forms centrosome

• Modified centrioles are also found elsewhere e.g. in flagella / cilia

→ Acts as a Microtubule Organising Centre (MTOC)
→ Organises / assembles microtubules
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 13. Centrioles and Centrosomes
Function of Centrosomes:
• It is a MTOC
• Organises / assembles microtubules
• For the formation of spindle fibres
• At opposite poles
• During cell division /mitosis

• Aid contraction of spindle

fibres to separate sister
chromatids

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 14. Microtubules
• Very small (~25nm)

• Made from tubulin

→ Form dimers
→ Dimers polymerise to form long
‘protofilaments’
→ 13 protofilaments = 1 microtubule
• Long, rigid, hollow tubes

• Formed and broken down at

Microtubule Organising Centres
(MTOCs)
• E.g. centrosomes, centrioles near
flagella/cilia Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
14. Microtubules

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 14. Microtubules
Functions:
• Make up the cytoskeleton
(together with actin filaments)
→ Provides mechanical support
→ Acts as an intracellular transport system
for movement of vesicles or other components
[Link]

→ Beating of flagella

• Makes up spindle fibres and centrioles

used in cell division

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 15. Cilia
• Only found in eukaryotes
• Smaller in diameter than microvilli
• Also not to be confused with flagella (mostly
found in prokaryotes)
• Motile / moves rhythmically
• Complicated structure made of
microtubules

Function:
• For movement / locomotion
→ E.g. ciliated epithelial cells in lungs,
Paramecium (eukaryotic microbe)

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

16. Microvilli
• Only found in animal cells
• Found on epithelial cells in the
intestines and kidneys
• Finger-like extensions of the cell
surface membrane

Functions:
Increase surface area
of the cell membrane for:
• Absorption
• Secretion of enzymes
• Digestion at the cell surface
• Excretion of waste substances
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Centrifugation
Q: What happens if we rupture
cells and spin them at high
speed?

A: The larger structures will

sediment first.

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Compare and contrast the structure of
an animal cell and a plant cell. [4]

Feature Animal cell Plant cell

Similarities:

Differences:

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Similarities between
Animal and Plant Cells
• Plasma membrane
• Nucleus
• Nucleolus
• Cytoplasm
• Other organelles
(eg: mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, lysosomes)

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Differences between
Animal and Plant Cells
Feature Animal Cells Plant Cells
Shape of cell No fixed shape Fixed shape
Presence of Cell
Absent Present
Walls
Presence of
Absent Present
plasmodesmata
Absent, if present, Present, large and
Presence of vacuoles
small, temporary permanent
Presence of
Absent Present
chloroplasts
Presence of
Present Absent
centrosomes
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Two types of cells: Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes
on the Tree of Life
Now let’s talk about
this type of cells!

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes
• pro = before
• karyon = nucleus
• Includes all bacteria
and archaea

Eukaryotes
• eu = true
• karyon = nucleus
• Includes plants,
animals, fungi and
other microbes
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Prokaryotic Cells: A typical bacterium
• Unicellular
• Relatively smaller (1-5µm)
• Simpler in structure
• Divides by binary fission

What all bacteria do not have:

• No membrane-bound organelles
• No nucleus
DNA lies free in cytoplasm
in the nucleoid region

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Prokaryotic Cells: A typical bacterium
What all bacteria have:
• Plasma membrane
• Cytoplasm
• Peptidoglycan cell wall
→ made of chains crossed
linked by amino acids
• 70S ribosomes
• Circular DNA
• DNA is naked
→ not associated with
proteins

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Prokaryotic Cells: A typical bacterium
What is only present in some bacteria:
1) Plasmids
• Small, circular DNA
• Codes for non-essential proteins
• Several may be present

2) Pili
• Sexual reproduction
• For attachment to other
cells/surfaces

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

Prokaryotic Cells: A typical bacterium

3) Flagellum
• Locomotion

4) Capsule
• Outer coat, additional protection
• Attach to surfaces

5) Infoldings of plasma membrane

(mesosomes)
• For photosynthesis / nitrogen fixation
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Prokaryotes,
Mitochondria and Chloroplast
They have a lot in common!

Both have:
• Similar size
• Small, circular DNA
• 70S ribosomes
• Division by binary fission

But why???

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Prokaryotes,
Mitochondria and Chloroplast
A: The Endosymbiotic Theory
[Link]

P/S: This is not in syllabus!

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Compare and contrast the structure of a
eukaryotic cell and prokaryotic cell. [4]

Feature Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Similarities:

Differences:

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Eukaryotic Cells
• Larger (~10-100µm in diameter)
• Has membrane-bound organelles

• Has nucleus
• DNA is linear
• DNA associated with proteins

• Larger 80S ribosomes

• Cellulose cell walls (plants)

• Chitin cell walls (fungi)
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Viruses
• Non-cellular structure
• ~50 times smaller than bacteria (20-300nm)
• Much simpler
• No plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes
• Only:
1. Nucleic acid core = DNA or RNA
2. Capsid = protein coat
- Protective coat
- May have one or two coats
3. Some viruses also have an
outer envelope made of phospholipids
4. Some proteins may be present
- e.g. haemagglutinin, neuraminidase
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 Viruses
• All parasitic
• Can only reproduce by infecting living cells
• Uses protein synthesising machinery of
host cell to replicate
• Are they considered living?

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 List of Eukaryotic Cell Structures
Plant + Animal Cells included!
You need to:
1) Name it 2) Recognise it 3) Know its function

1. Cell surface membrane 9. Chloroplast

2. Nucleus, nuclear envelope and 10. Cell wall
nucleolus 11. Plasmodesmata
3. Ribosomes 12. Vacuole and tonoplast
4. RER 13. Centrioles
5. SER 14. Microtubules
6. Golgi body 15. Cilia
7. Lysosomes 16. Microvilli
8. Mitochondria

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Important Terms to Remember
Pay attention to those bold, highlighted red text and what’s
emphasised in class!

In addition to the list of 16 eukaryotic cell structures to remember:

Bacteria (Prokaryote) Virus

(No membrane-bound organelles) 1. DNA / RNA
1. Nucleoid region 2. Capsid (protein coat)
3. Envelope
2. Peptidoglycan cell wall
3. Circular DNA
4. 70S ribosome
5. Plasmids

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Chapter Outline
Part 1: Microscopy
• Magnification vs Resolution
• Light Microscope vs Electron Microscope

Part 2: Micrometry: How do we measure cells?

• Calibrating EPG using the Stage Micrometer (Practical 1)
• Magnification

Part 3: Cell Structure and Function

• Organelles
• Animal vs Plant cells
• Eukaryotes vs Prokaryotes
• Viruses
Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy
 OK warning! All videos are for reference and
Videos entertainment only and ALWAYS contain too
much/ too little/irrelevant info.

Seeing the Invisible: van Leeuwenhoek's first glimpses of the microbial world:
[Link]

Principles of electron microscopes

[Link]

Organelles involved in protein synthesis

[Link]

Inner Life of the Cell (3:00 onwards – it’s hard to understand what he is saying, but the 3D animations
gives you a clue on how the cytoskeleton works and how protein production relies on it too!)
[Link]

Inside the living cell

[Link]

Updated on 12/7/21 by Beh SJ @behlogy

 Chapter 122/09/2024
Biology / AS
Cambridge International Schools AY 2024-2025

For teacher’s use

Total / 30

Signature

Subject:

Unit Title:

Name

Class Date

Q1 Which statement about light microscopy is correct?

A As the resolution increases, the magnification increases.

B As the magnification increases, the image always becomes clearer.

C The resolution will decrease as coloured light of increasing wavelengths is used.

D Magnification and resolution are terms that relate to the same factor. [2]

Q2
Q3

[2]

40 = 100 um

1 division = 2.5 um. 10(from image) x 2.5 = 25 um

Q4
Q5
Q6

Q7
Q8
Q9
Q10
 [2]

Cambridge International School Page 1

1 Cell structure
1.1 The microscope in cell studies ANIMAL CELL

a) Differences between plant and animal cells

PLANT CELL

Images: Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology Coursebook

b, c, e) Magnification calculations
LIGHT MICROSCOPE

ANIMAL CELL

CONVERSIONS
1 mm = 1000 or 103 µm
1 µm = 1000 or 103 nm

PLANT CELL d) Resolution and magnification

Ø magnification – how much bigger a sample appears
to be under a microscope than it is in real life
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

Ø resolution – the ability to distinguish between 2

separate points.
- as resolution increases, image clarity and detail
also increase

Types of microscopes
LIGHT ELECTRON

SEM – 3 nm
RESOLUTION 200 nm
TEM – 0.5 nm

MAGNIFICATION x1500 x250,000 – x500,000

1 [Link]
a) Light microscopes a) Electron micrographs of plant and animal
• limit of resolution: half the wavelength cells
• ribosomes (25nm) can’t be seen with a light a) Plant cells
microscope as they don’t interfere with the light
waves

Image: [Link]

Image: Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology Coursebook

• different stains are absorbed by different cell

organelles so they can be observed more clearly

b) Electron microscopes
• vacuum (electrons cannot be focused without a
vacuum as they will collide with air molecules and
scatter)
• water boils at room temperature in a vacuum, so the
sample must be dehydrated (specimen has to be
Image: [Link]
dead)

Advantages of a light microscope over an electron

microscope b) Animal cells
1) can observe living tissue
2) more portable
3) easier to use - no technical training required
4) possible to see real/natural colours and a live
specimen
5) can stain particular types of tissue for better visibility

1.2 Cells as the basic units of

living organisms
The cell is the basic unit of all living organisms.
The interrelationships between these cell structures show Image: [Link]
how cells function to transfer energy, produce biological
molecules including proteins and exchange substances
with their surroundings.

2 [Link]
 • carry out protein synthesis
• 80S – cytoplasm
• 70S – chloroplasts & mitochondria

4) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

• membranes that form an extended system of fluid-
filled sacs (cisternae)
• single membraned organelle
• ribosomes are attached to the RER and are the site
Image: [Link] of protein synthesis
• proteins made by the ribosomes enter the sacs and
b) Eukaryotic cell structures and their functions are often modified as they go through them
• small sacs (vesicles) break off from the ER and join
1) Cell surface membrane (phospholipid bilayer) to form the golgi body
(7 nm)
• selectively permeable membrane that allows for the
exchange of certain substances
• barrier between cytoplasm and external environment
• cell recognition (surface antigens)
• selection of substances that enter/leave cells

2) Nucleus (7 µm)
Controls cell’s activities
• very dense, takes up colour the most when stained
• divides first during cell division
• surrounded by 2 membranes, known as the nuclear
envelope which is continuous with the RER. Image: Esrefoglu, Mukaddes. (2019). The Golgi Apparatus: Morphology and Function with Recent
Facts. Bezmialem Science. 7. 331-338. 10.14235/[Link].2019.2806.

5) Golgi body / apparatus / complex

Image: [Link]

• contains:
a) nuclear pores: allow and control substances
entering in (protein to make ribosomes, ATP,
some hormones, nucleotides) and leaving (mRNA,
ribosomes for protein synthesis) of nucleus Image: [Link]

b) nucleolus (2.5 µm): contains loops DNA from • stack of flattened sacs (cisternae) formed by the
several chromosomes and synthesises ribisomes vesicles which bud off from the RER
• Single membraned organelle
3) Ribosomes (25 nm) • Packages substances into vesicles for transport
• composed of 2 subunits • glycosylation
• phosphorylating proteins
• assembly of polypeptides into proteins (4º structure)
• folding proteins
• removing the 1st amino acid methionine to activate
Image: [Link]
proteins

3 [Link]
 • energy released from energy-rich molecules e.g.,
6) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) sugars and fats during respiration is transferred to
molecules of ATP
• synthesizes lipids and steroids such as cholesterol
• ATP is the energy-carrying molecule in all living cells
and the reproductive hormones estrogen and
testosterone. • once made, ATP leaves the mitochondrion and can
spread rapidly to all parts of the cell where energy is
needed
• its energy is released by breaking ATP down to ADP
(adenosine diphosphate) in a hydrolysis reaction
• see Chapter 12.2(i) for more details

9) Microtubules

Image: [Link]

7) Lysosomes (0.1-1µm)
• spherical sacs surrounded by a single membrane
• not permanent structures
• no internal structure
• contain hydrolytic enzymes Image: [Link]
• responsible for digestion/breakdown of unwanted • long, rigid, hollow tubes found in the cytoplasm
structures e.g., old organelles
• made of a protein called tubulin
• can even digest whole cells e.g., in mammary glands
after the period of lactation • tubulin has 2 forms – ⍺ & β tubulin
• ⍺ & β tubulin molecules combine to form dimers
• many dimers are joined end to end to form
protofilaments
• 13 protofilaments are in a ring to form a cylinder with
a hollow center
• this cylinder is the microtubule

Image: [Link]

• supports and gives shapes to the cell

8) Mitochondria (0.5-10µm)
• the assembly of microtubules from tubulin molecules
is controlled by special locations in cells called
microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs)

9.5) Centrioles (and centrosomes)

• outside the nucleus of animal cells, 2 centrioles are

present close together at right angles in a region
called the centrosome
Image: [Link]

• carries out aerobic respiration

• synthesizes ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
• more in cells that have a higher demand for energy
e.g., muscle, liver, and root hair cells
• outer membrane contains a transport protein called
porin
Image: [Link]

4 [Link]
 13) Vacuoles
• centrioles are hollow cylinders about 500 nm long • surrounded by a partially permeable tonoplast which
• produces spindle fibers controls exchange between the vacuole and
• organizes microtubules cytoplasm

10) Chloroplasts (3-10µm)

• helps regulate osmotic properties of cells

• fluid present in the vacuole consists of:

Image: [Link]

• diameter 3-10 um
• carries out photosynthesis
• contains starch grains, circular DNA, and 70S
ribosomes
• ATP is also produced here
• see Chapter 13.3(a) for more details
d) Structural features of prokaryotic cells
• organisms that lack nuclei or proper nuclear
11) Cell wall
membranes are called prokaryotes
• gives cell definite shape • unicellular
• rigid as made of cellulose • 1-5um
• freely permeable • cell wall made of murein (peptidoglycan = protein +
• prevents cell from bursting polysaccharides)
• no membranes around organelles
12) Plasmodesmata • 70S (smaller) ribosomes
• plant cells are linked to neighboring cells by means of • genetic material in the form of circular DNA
fine strands of cytoplasm called plasmodesmata • have no ER
which pass through pore-like structures in their walls

Image: [Link]

• allows the transport of water, sucrose, amino acids,

ions, etc., between cells without crossing membranes
• this is called movement through the symplastic
pathway
• allows communication/signaling between cells.

Image: Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology Coursebook

5 [Link]
e) Differences between typical eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells

Image: [Link]

See Chapter 18.2 for more details

f) Viruses

Image: Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology Coursebook

• noncellular/acellular
• protein coat
• nucleic acid core; DNA/RNA strand
• replicate inside host cells only
• show no characteristics of living organism
• symmetrical shape
• the virus DNA/RNA takes over the protein
synthesizing machinery of the host cell which helps
to make new virus particles
• See Chapter 18.2(d) for more details

6 [Link]