Theme 2 : The Post-war Bipolar World and challenges to Bi-polarization

Chapter 5 – A new geopolitical order : The emergence of the

developing world (1948-1970s)
In 3 decades after WW2 Most of countries in Asia and Africa under €pean rule became dependant,
going through decolonisation. In some areas, that was made peacefully, when other only after a war.
The ways in which the US and USSR supported the independence of these countries; former colonies
a way to expand their sphere of influences → as reaction, non-alignment movement; called the Third
World (way of developing w/out US or USSR).

I. A wave of decolonisation : the birth of the new States

I.1. The reason for decolonisation
I.1.A. World War 2
Africa → key role in WW2, as the continent sent troops to fight for €peans . Britain had several
hundred thousand soldiers from South Africa, East Africa, West Africa → overall a bit less than a
million. For Fr, recruited colonial troops from Algeria, Senegal, Mali, and freed Fr troops from the
general De Gaulle. During the war, Africa soldiers realised that colonial powers could be defeated.
When fighting for free Fr, the motto was;
Jap could easily defeat the colonial authority in Asia → Asian nationalists understood that they could
get independence through the help of Japan
l.1.B. International rise of the idea of decolonization
In WW2, many of colonial empires have been shattered → after the war many set the goal to restore
the colonial authority. For Ex : the Netherlands have been defeated by the Nazis, and after the war
wanted to conquer Indonesia again. FDR met Churchill had series of goals by the ned of the War –>
making sure free trade possible again and assuring principle of self-gov and restoring sovereignty
rights → The Atlantic Charter in 1941. Ironic because very decolonial and written by the UK → UK
and US were taking about €pe as it was conquered by the Nazis. Colonies used it as an argument for
decolonisation.
The Brazzaville conference, 1944
In 1944, b4 the end of the w, CDG met W/ colonial authorities; Brazzaville conference → response of
Atlantic Charter. According to it, colonies have benefited from the work of civilisation and should
remain in the Fr empire. Giving up the colonies, out of question, but were considered as part of the
new country and not only peripheries
5th Pan-African Congress, 1945
Pledging to fight imperialism, fight for human rights. The 1st structure to set the goal of
decolonisation; they discussed about d° but were powerless at this time.
l.1.C. The Cold War
The CW led to to 2 superpowers who supported decolonisation. The USSR, strictly anti-colonial,
because colonization was the last step of capitalism; so, fighting capitalism was supporting countries
into gaining their independence. US saw decolonisation was a risk, as d° meant the risk of
communism take over. The US decided not to grant the Marshall Plan to the Netherlands if it wanted
to conquer back Indonesia. The US used a package to make sure the countries would not align w/ the
East.
l.2. The steps of independence
In 1945, 51 members in the United Nations : 4 African nations belonging to the UN : Egypt (colonized
1922-1947), South Africa (1910), Liberia (1847), and Ethiopia (never)
Decolonisation started in Asia between 1949 and 1955, and African countries 1955-1965
Indonesia in 1949
French protectorate of Tunisia and Morocco achieved independence in 1956. In Algeria, War from 54-
62
In 58, French community was created to drive transition for West Af countries to gain independence.
British colonies → gradually moved from Br to independence, Mau Mau revolts Kenya from 52 to 56.
Sometimes independence took different stages: ex: in Ghana Gold Coast went autonomous in 1951,
independent in 1957. Most British colonies kept ties w/ UK through Commonwealth : 52 in 2006.
Southern Africa achieved decolonisation later, the dictator of Portugal, Salazar, ruled the country
from 32 to 58. He wanted to keep his colonies, the Portuguese clashed w/ Angola and Mozambique.
75, date of the Portugal colony of Oceania, East Timor, independent.
l.3 Middle East : between decolonisation, bipolarization, and nationalisms
l.3.A. The Suez Crisis
The ME → area where relations were unstable, just South of the USSR, outside the Buffer zone. Area
known for reserves of oil → essential to rebuild the alliances in €pe → Bagdad Pact signed w/ UK. To
contain communism, US signed pact w/ Saudi Arabia in 1945, the Quincey Pact. Turkey joined NATO
in 1952. Iran and Pakistan signed the Bagdad Pact w/ the UK.
The US supported colonel Nasser in Egypt, the soviets supported Syria and South Yemen. At the time,
the Suez Canal was a chokepoint, so Egypt was a strategic area; most important country in the region,
nationalisation of the Suez Canal in 1956.
October 29th, 1956; Israel invaded part of Sinai
UK and Fr in reaction issued an ultimatum to get Israel and Egypt to ceasefire. November 5th : Fr and
UK landed power troops was to gain control of the Suez Canal
Egyptians forced stopped but they blocked the Suez Canal
The US and USSR were forced to withdraw; since Britain had landed troops; Soviet denounced
imperialism. Military success for Israel → this event was final demise for Fr and the UK as major
players in the region → turning point from colonial era to the cold war era in 1956 → diplomatic
victory. Aswan Dam. A rift going between Atlantic allies → led Fr and the US to develop their own
nuclear forces to be less dependent from the US, developing common market.
The situation regarding oil : Western countries understood that they need to regain dependence on
oil. 1960 → During Bagdad conference, OPEC was founded → org° of Petroleum exporting countries,
ME countries : Saudi Arabia, Irak, Venezuela, Iran, United Emirates.
1.3.B. The Israeli-Arab conflict
I. The creation of Israel is justified by Holocaust and the long history of Zionism
II. The US partition pact did not consider the population already living in Palestine
60 000 Zionists from Eastern €pe
 6 Days War, June 1967
 -Pan-Arabism : all the Arab countries should ally; Nasser was popular in Syria and Irak =
common point → common struggle against Israel – led Nasser to close the strait of
to prevent any Israelis
- Egypt was planning to invade Israel → held to war against Jordan, Syria
- 6-day stop crushed the 3 armies → led to development of colonies in Sinai.
- UN security council demanded Israel to turn → in exchange, neighbours states would
recognise the state of Israel
 The Yom-Kippur War, October 6th, 1973
- Happened on a Jewish holiday “Kippur” → Egypt and Syrai launched an offensive on
Sinai
- Goal : Syria and Egypt to recover territories
- Israelis repelled attackers – arrived at the gate of Cairo
- Superpowers intervened – soviet for Arab countries, US for Israel. UN asked for a
ceasefire at the gate of Cairo
- End of the war → October 20th 1973
After Yom-Kippur War, OPEC countries decided they would sell up an embargo against any1 supporting
Israel → led to the 1st boom of oil
 Boom had major repercussions in €pe :
 energy more expensive
 led to investment in nuclear in some €pean countries, and energy through cycling in
Netherlands
1973 → birth of the non-alignment movement (NAM)
 OPEC countries are part of the non-alignment movement and use oil as a leverage to escape
the logic of the two superpowers → oil as a way to negotiate

II. Non-alignment and the “third way” challenges to bipolarization

II.1. The non-alignment movement
II.1.A The premises to the non-alignment movement
• 1st factor → decolonisation supported by the US and USSR, hoping the new independent would
join their sphere of influence : some countries chose a 3rd way
 USSR supporter of anti-imperialism → believed in the liberation of colonised ppl of all
kinds of oppressions
 Some countries chose the US → join American block → receiving aid from the US
 Some refused both; creating a new block
 Last option : creating a balance → to use benefits of both – Ex : Egypt use kopecks to
maximise benefits
 In mid 50s → NAM emerged when world became increasing bi-polar
 1st factor : East and West antagonised, engaged in war
 2nd factor : having decolonised countries (some even have seats in the UN : India, Egypt,
Indonesia; thanks to their huge population, charismatic leaders)
• These countries became what is called the “Third World” countries coined by French
geographer Alfred Sauvy → outdated
II.1.B. The Bandung conference (1955)
→ 1st key international conference : set of countries met in Colombo, Sri Lanka, during which Neru
insisted on 5 principles of peaceful coexistence :
 Mutual respect for territories and sovereignty
  Mutual non-agression
 Mutual non-interference
 Equality and mutual benefit
Peaceful coexistence → framework for international relations.
→ After launching principles, countries organised Afro-Asian conference in Java → few kilometres away
from Jakarta, the capital.
• From April 18th to April 24th – 29 countries met. The organisers were Sri Lanka, Japan, Burma,
Indonesia, African and Asian countries met.
At the time, countries of the Bandung conference represented 57% of the world’s pop, 11% of
the world’s GDP. Goals of the conference → same principles
→ Use platform to support other countries under colonisation. Also aimed for economic
solidarity to avoid neo-colonialism (= reproduction of the colonial principles, but through
economic ways)
→ Some participants aligned
 China under the influence of the soviets → wanted to pave the way for other countries to
develop themselves; China becomes a leader under the 3rd world (ironic?)
→ Some countries did not align
 Limitation : Pakistan was under both NIM and under the US
BRIOM → meeting of the REALLY non-aligned countries → non-alignment movement gained ground
under the Suez crisis

“Our nations and countries are colonies no more. Now we are free, sovereign, and independent” →
opening address; 1st speech given by Sukarno

In 62-63 → hot phase : Cuba missile crisis

II.1.C. Non-alignment movement in the 1960s and the 1970s : successes and limits
→ In 1960, meeting of the UN in New York; as UN represents the international land

• Most significant event – Belgrade conference in 1961

 1st international summit in Yugoslavia and Cuba = outside of Cuba and Africa. Nkrumah
urged to speed up the process of decolonisation.
 Neru and Nkrumah spoke in Moscow, Sukarno and Keita in Washington : → goal is to urge
the two big powers to say that they are non-aligned
→ 1960 is the hottest moment of the Cold War : Non-aligned movement use the UN as an echo
chamber to express their revendications. Gradually, decided to move on to other goals regarding the
eco.
In the 60s, NAM is concerned for development as it is experimenting demographic growth
Biafra War between 67-70 → Nigeria and its neighbours see the downfall of NAM. India insisted that
Soviet Union was Asian and then should be invited too. It shows that the NAM was not totally
disconnected to the Cold War regime
• Furthermore, the NAM lost clients when they got upset :

 NAM summit in 1956 → Castro asked to launch anti-Am in South America but anti-
American does not correspond to non-aligned movement
 Selective denunciation of imperialism, breach of principle of non-alignment
  For many countries, US is a breach of financial support. Many countries attempt to be self-
sufficient, but underdevelopment made it unsuccessful → Ex : Burkina Faso
II.2. China as a new model in the Cold War
II.2.A. China as the “right-hand man” of the soviet power in Asia
• China → regime under Mao Zedhong looked on the USSR as an inspiration, goal is to modernise
the country, through the Sino-soviet treaty of friendship. USSR provided financial assistance to
help modernise China → 10 000 engineers and technicians