Mechanics

Distance - length covered by an object

Displacement - change in position of an object Equation Horizontal Free Fall
g = 10
Start from rest (vi=0)
Speed - distance over time
1 vf = vi + at vf = vi − gt Stop (vf=0)
Average speed - total distance over total time
d At maximum height (v=0)
v= Drop (vi=0)
t 1 1
Velocity - displacement over time 2 Δx = (vi + vf )t Δy = (vi + vf )t Throw (vi ≠ 0)
2 2
Average velocity - total displacement over total time
Δx Important Square Roots
v = 1 1
t 3 Δx = vit + at 2 Δy = vit − gt 2 2 = 1.4
2 2 3 = 1.7
Acceleration - change in velocity over change in time
Δv 5 = 2.2
a = 4 vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔx vf2 = vi2 − 2gΔy
Δt

Projectile Motion Forces Formulas and Concepts Torque and Rotational Motion Energy and Power
Facts
Weight w = mg Torque τ = F × r Work W = Fd
• Maximum Range is Friction f = μη F is the force causing rotation Work-Energy Theorem W = ΔE
r is the moment arm, distance of force to
achieved at 45 μ is coef cient of friction 1
axis of rotation
degrees η is normal force Kinetic Energy K E = m v2
• Horizontal motion 2
Newton’s Second Law Rotational Form Potential Energy PE = mgh
has constant First Law: Inertia (body at rest or τ = Iα Mechanical Energy ME = PE + K E
velocity with constant velocity) I is moment of inertia
• Vertical Motion is ΣF = 0 α is angular acceleration in rad/s2 When doing free fall analysis,
accelerated ΔME = 0 → MEi = MEf
• The vertical velocity Second Law: Acceleration
at maximum height Momentum and Impulse
(body is accelerating) Mechanical Power
is 0. ΣF = m a W Fd
Momentum p = m v P= = = Fv
t t
At Maximum height, Third Law: Interaction (two Impulse I = F t Units
a =−g bodies act with equal but opposite
vy = 0 Joule for work and energy
forces) Momentum-Impulse Theorem Watt for mechanical power
vx = con sta nt Fa,b = − Fb,a I = Δp = mΔv
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 Fluid Mechanics
m Fluid Pressure
Density ρ =
V
Gauge Pressure (point to point)
ρsubs Pgauge = ρgh
Speci c gravity spgr =
ρwater h is depth in the uid

Important values of the density of water Absolute Pressure (gauge + atmospheric)

kg kg g g Pabs = P0 + Pgauge
ρwater = 1000 3 = 1 =1 =1 3
m L mL cm P0 = 101,325Pa ≈ 100,000Pa
P0 is atmospheric pressure
Fluids in Motion
Buoyant Force FB = ρf luid gVf luid−dsiplaced Important conversion between units of
pressure We will consider uids which are non-viscous
1a t m = 101,325Pa = 760tor r = 769m m Hg = 29.9i n Hg and incompressible.
Archimedes Principle - a body partially or wholly
submerged in a uid is exerted upon by an upward/
Continuity Principle
buoyant force equal to the weight of the uid displaced.
Narrow passage = Faster ow speed
Applications of Archimedes Principle A1v1 = A2 v2
1. Calculating the fraction of the body that is submerged
or oating Torricelli’s principle
ρobj Fluids at greater depths ow faster
f r a csunken =
ρf luid v = 2gh
ρobj
f r a cf loating = 1 − h is the depth of the uid, distance of
ρf luid opening from the surface of the uid

2. Calculating the speci c gravity of a substance (knowing Venturi Effect

the weight in air and weight in water) Faster uid speed = Lower pressure
wair Pascal’s Principle
spgr =
wair − wwater
Pressure due to a force on an enclosed uid is Bernoulli’s Principle
transmitted undiminished throughout the uid. Used in A statement of conservation of energy applied in
Pressure by a solid
F hydraulic lifts. uids (combination of continuity, Torricelli’s and
P= Venturi)
A F1 F 1 2 1
F is force, A is area in contact = 2 P1 + ρgh1 + ρv1 = P2 + ρgh 2 + ρv22
A1 A2 2 2
Units of Pressure
Pascal (Pa), atm, torr, mmHg, inHg
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 Thermodynamics

Temperature ~ measure of hotness or coldness

of an object,

Conversion between scales Notes on Second Law

TF = 1.8TC + 32
TK = TC + 273 The second law is a law of
impossibilities, so when you
see statements with the
keywords “impossible”, “can
not”, “not possible}, etc, it is
Heat ~ energy transferred between systems a statement of the second
law.
Conversion between unita
1cal = 4.184J
1Cal = 1000cal

Some important constants

Heat Flow and Thermal Expansion Effects of Heat cal J
cwarer = 1 = 4.186 o
gK gC
Rate of Heat Flow cal kJ
TH − TC Speci c Heat Lf,water = 80 = 334
P =k g kg
L Q = m cΔT cal kJ
P is power, k is thermal conductivity, TH and Q is the heat needed to change the L v,water = 540 = 2230
TC are temperatures of the reservoirs, L is temperature, m is mass, c is speci c heat g kg
length capacity, and ΔT is change in temperature.
Law of Heat Exchange
Thermal Expansion Latent Heat Qlost = Qgained
ΔL = L 0 αΔT Q = mL
ΔL is change in length, L0 is initial/original Q is the heat needed to change phase, m is Temperature Change
length, α is linear thermal coef cient, ΔT is mass, and L is the latent heat of the phase Gain: ΔT = Tf − Ti
change in temperature. change. Lost: ΔT = Ti − Tf
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 Electricity

Coulomb’s Law ~ the electrostatic force

between two charges is directly proportional to the Network/
Series Parallel
product of the charges and inversely proportional to Component
the square of the distance between them.
q1q2 1
F =k RT = R1 + R2 + R3 RT = 1 1 1
d2 IT = I1 = I2 = I3 R1
+ R2
+ R3
k is electrostatic constant VT = V1 + V2 + V3
2 IT = I1 + I2 + I3
9 Nm
Resistors
(k = 9 × 10 ), q1 and q2 are the two More resistors, higher total resistance, VT = V1 = V2 = V3
C2 lower current, higher total voltage More resistors, lower total resistance,
charges, d is the distance between them.
higher current, equal voltages
Fundamental Law of Electrostatics 1
Like charges repel. CT = 1 1 1
Unlike charges attract. C1
+ C2
+ C3
CT = C1 + C2 + C3
QT = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
Capacitors VT = V1 + V2 + V3 VT = V1 = V2 = V3
More capacitors, lower capacitance, less More capacitors, higher capacitance
charges stored, higher voltage. more charges stored, equal voltages
Resistance ~ property of a material that prevents
current from passing through it.
L
R=ρ
A
ρ is the resistivity of a material, L is the length Capacitance ~ property of a material that allows it
and A is the cross-section area. to store electrical energy through charge.
A
Ohm’s Law C = ϵ0
d
The voltage drop across any resistor is equal to the ϵ0 is the permittivity of free space, d is the
resistance of the resistor multiplied by the current distance between the two plates and A is the
passing through it, cross-section area of the conductor.
V = IR
Capacitance in terms of charge and voltage
Electrical Power q
C=
Using Ohm’s Law, electrical power is V
V2 q is charge and V is voltage.
P = VI = I 2 R =
R
 Optics

Physical Optics ~ studies the physical

properties of light (energy, frequency, Color Perception
wavelength, speed, and spectrum). Color perception depends on
c = λf the nature of the light that
m reaches our eyes.
c is the speed of light c = 3 × 108 , λ
s Example. Red shirt absorbs all
is the wavelength of light (meters), f is colors except red (which it
frequency of light (Hz). re ects).

• Frequency and wavelength are inversely White re ects all.

proportional. Black absorbs all.
• High Energy = High Frequency = Small
Wavelength Colorblindness
• Frequency = number of cycles per unit time The inability to perceive some
• Wavelength = distance between two The Law of Re ection The Law of Refraction primary colors. X-linked
consecutive crests or troughs condition.
Angle of incidence is equal to angle Going to a higher index of refraction
• Amplitude = height of a wave
of re ection. decreases the angle of refraction
• Phase shift = position displacement of a Primary colors of light
wave in time. Red, Green, Blue
Mirrors are re ective surfaces. Lenses are refractive surfaces.

Images by Vision Correction using Lenses

Diverging To correct vision, we must use the Lens-Maker Equation
Mirrors/Lenses 1
f = 1 1
Dispersion
The images formed p
+ q Blue light bends
by “DIVERGING” more than red light
mirrors and lenses f is the focal length.
are: p is the normal value.
q is the negative value of the condition.
CUVS
Steps:
Closer 1. Substitute the normal value to p. The normal value of a near point is 0.25m. The
Converging Diverging normal value of the far point is in nity(∞).
Upright
Virtual 2. Substitute the negative value of the condition to q. Example, if the patient’s near
Concave Mirrors Convex Mirrors
Smaller point is 0.5m, then q = − 0.5m
Biconvex Lenses Biconcave Lenses 3. Solve for the focal length. Make sure the units are agreeing.
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 Nuclear Physics

Nuclear decay occurs when the nucleus of Radiation/

an atom is unstable and spontaneously emits Alpha Beta Gamma
Property
energy in the form of radiation to achieve
stability.
Ejected particle Helium nucleus Electron/Positron Photon/Gamma Ray
Applications of nuclear radiation:
cancer treatment and imaging science
Mass Heavy Light Massless
Half Life is the amount of time that mass
pass in order for the amount/intensity of a
radioactive material to become half. Ionizing Power High Moderate Low

1 t
N(t) = N0( ) t1/2
2 Penetration Depth Low Moderate High
N0 is the original amount/intensity, t1/2
is the half life, t is the time that passed.
Interaction with
Electric/Magnetic Strongly Moderately No Interaction
Fields

Balancing Nuclear Equations

1. Mass numbers of the reactant side must always

equal the product side.
2. Atomic numbers of the reactant side must always
equal the product side.
3. When neutrons are involved, balance the mass
numbers only. This is because neutrons have zero
atomic numbers.
4. Always remember that the mass number is the
sum of the number of protons and neutrons, that
is
A =Z +N
A is mass number, Z is the atomic number/
number of protons, N is the number of
neutrons