MODULE – VI

COMMUNICATIONS, SUPPORTING SUBSYSTEMS:*

 In vehicle and outside of the vehicle communications are fast growing technology areas
in automotive applications.
 Automotive communications networks have typically used LANs (local area
networks) of the controller area network (CAN) variety.
 CAN networks are converting over to protocols that are more fault tolerant and have
guaranteed communications times and no issues with message latency as has been
common for multiple access collision detection (MA/CD) protocols in the past.
 Time triggered protocols (TTP) have been proposed for many years and are now
beginning to enter the automotive arena as a new protocol derived from a TTP/C basis
known as Flexray.

IN VEHICLE NETWORKS- CAN* >> Communication protocol: CAN

 During most of the early years of electronic engine control and for hybrid propulsion
technologies some form of CAN communications b/w the various subsystems has
been in use.
 Early SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) standards categorised in-vehicle
networks according to data handling speed.
 Setting a standard based on data handling speed in effect determined the types of
devices that could be served and the types of data communication protocols that could
be applied.
 Early hybrid propulsion communications architectures relied on class B and some
provision was made for class C, CAN, where very fast data exchange was necessary,
such as in the power train controller.
 Class A is a low speed protocol used primarily for in-vehicle body electrical functions
such as power seat and power window controls.
 Protocols on class A networks include local interconnect network (LIN) and time
triggered protocol/A (TTP/A).
 Class B n/ws are designed for data sharing between devices in the hope of
minimising if not eliminating redundant sensors – for example, instrumentation,
speed-control functions, emissions systems and others.
 Class B network protocols include ISO 9141-2 and SAE J1850.
 CAN-class C network protocol was developed for real time control applications;
hence the reference to power train control functions.
 Vehicle dynamics control also included in class C protocol.
 Protocols listed under class C are CAN and J1039.
 The various in-vehicle network classes are described in Table along with typical in-
vehicle applications served.
Network class Speed Application
Class A Customer amenities: power seats,
<10 kbps
LIN, TTP/A windows, mirrors, trunk release, etc.
Information transfer: cabin climate
Class B 10 kbps → 125
control, dash-board instrumentation,
J1850, ISO 9141-2 kbps
convenience features, etc.
Class C 125 kbps → 12 Real time control: power train and
CAN, J1039 Mbps vehicle dynamics
Class D MOST, Multimedia and safety critical
>1 Mbps
Flexray applications: x-by-wire, digital TV, Internet

EEE BMCE|E L E C T R I C & H Y B R I D V E H I C L E S Notes by JPM 1

 A typical CAN network in an HEV is shown in Figure.
 The CAN is a fast, high rate network enabling communication between ECUs.
 In CAN most data can be updated every 10ms and the data is checked to assure data
reliability.

Control Variables
 The control variables connect various ECUs each other, fall in one of the 3 categories:
i. Mechanical
ii. Electrical
iii. Discrete
 The control variables falling in the mechanical category are:
 All the variable related to ICE
 Gear ratio
 Rpm of each rotational component
 The control variables falling in the electrical category are:
 Currents in the batteries, inverters and EM
 Voltages across EM, inverters and battery terminals
 EM torque
 The variables are like yes/no or on/off and HEVs have a few such variables such as:
 EM mode: motor or generator?
 Gear ration: which of the n available gears?
 Clutch: engaged or disengaged
EEE BMCE|E L E C T R I C & H Y B R I D V E H I C L E S Notes by JPM 2
Power and data networks

 Modern vehicles, and particularly hybrid vehicles, are evolving to a four layer power
and data communications architecture.
 The four layer model is based on broad classes of functionality, data transmission
speed and data protocols associated with broad classes of speeds.
 The four layer model includes: power distribution in an open architecture sense of
generation, storage and distribution systems; safety and mobility including air bag
deployment control to power train and x-by-wire controls; body layer including
interior and exterior lighting, customer amenities and instrumentation; and
infotainment layer including high end audio products, TV, wireless phone, voice
actuated systems, navigation aides, and other additions in a scaleable and flexible
architecture.
 In-vehicle architectures, besides being open, are hierarchical by design. A
hierarchical architecture adheres to strict protocols of top-down command flow and
upward flow of data.
 Lateral data flow is allowed, but lateral command flow is prohibited.
 This is the architecture of choice for hybrid propulsion in which a high level vehicle
system controller is coordinating its various subsystems as shown in Figure.

 The communications networks serving the full vehicle will be of different classes and
share data via gateways.
 For example, outside of the power train, chassis and energy system functions
illustrated in Figure (above) there would be additional networks for safety and
mobility, body control and infotainment as shown in following Figure, and perhaps
others interconnected via gateways.
 In Figure the power and data architecture is shown with class A/B network for body
and energy management and a Class C network for power train and hybrid system
control as well as safety and mobility plus infotainment.
 This high speed network can be upgraded to include a separate, higher speed,
dedicated network to serve the infotainment functions as these become more
pervasive in the automobile.

EEE BMCE|E L E C T R I C & H Y B R I D V E H I C L E S Notes by JPM 3

Future communications: TTCAN
 Controller area networks (CANs) are event triggered protocols covered under ISO
specification 11898 for data link layer communications.
 Future by-wire technologies require time triggered communications protocols so that
closed loop control is consistent and free of network latency issues.

EEE BMCE|E L E C T R I C & H Y B R I D V E H I C L E S Notes by JPM 4

 To mitigate latency issues, time triggered CAN (TTCAN) is being proposed that can
schedule messages either as event driven or time triggered without excessive software
overhead and minimal additional cost.
 As more and more of the vehicles subsystems are linked there is a need for fast sensor
data sharing and real time performance in the associated controls.
 It is also necessary that the communications channel link with the instrument cluster
(human–machine interface) for feedback to the operator on system status.
 TTCAN’s controller would trigger the appropriate sensor for its data and share these
data with the affected modules.

 With TTCAN, bus synchronization and time triggering boost bus availability to about
90% of capability.
 This is because with only a single message on the bus loss of arbitration is prevented
and channel latency becomes entirely predictable.
 In the case of using a CAN physical layer with TTCAN this puts an upper limit of
approximately 1 Mb/s on bus loading.
 Because of the flexible event and time triggering options, TTCAN has been called
MultiCAN by some manufacturers.
 The benefit of TTCANlies in the fact that existing network physical medium and
channels remain intact and the time triggering along with synchronization of the bus
and all connected modules shifting from local to global time without the need for
expensive hardware or replacement of the network medium.
 The protocol is at the proposal stage and will be offered as part of manufacturers ’ 32-
bit microcontrollers.

Future communications: Flexray

 With all of the new x-by-wire technologies now on the horizon the automotive industry
must respond with a single, reliable, high speed communications standard for in-vehicle
networking.
 Drive-by-wire technologies include steering, braking, suspension and traction control
via engine throttle control and hybrid system M/G control, and more, will replace every
hydraulic and mechanical system now in place.
 These safety critical and propulsion control subsystems require deterministic
communications for which the protocol demanded is time triggered versus the event
triggered CAN protocols.
 The Flexray protocol is now in the process of being validated as the technology of choice
that will provide the high speed, deterministic, fault tolerant, level of communications
bandwidth needed for data transmission in chassis control, hybrid power train and
energy management system functions.

EEE BMCE|E L E C T R I C & H Y B R I D V E H I C L E S Notes by JPM 5

 An industry wide Flexray consortium of global automotive manufacturers and suppliers
has formed to drive the adoption of an open standard for high speed data bus
communications to meet the future demands of x-by-wire.

 The Flexray protocol targets future in-vehicle applications that require, and benefit
from, higher data rates, deterministic behaviour and fault tolerance.
 Flexray is the communications protocol that is scalable and incorporates the benefits of
familiar synchronous and asynchronous protocols.
 Flexray protocol supports fault-tolerant clock synchronization via a global time base,
has collision free bus access, provides guaranteed message latency, has message
oriented addressing identifiers, and a scalable fault tolerance over single or dual
channels.
 The physical layer (OSI layer 1) includes an independent bus guardian for error
containment while supporting bus speeds up to 10 Mbps.
 The basic features of Flexray are:
 scalable synchronous and asynchronous data transmission
 high net data rate of 5 Mbps with a gross data rate of up to 10 Mbps
 deterministic data transmission, guaranteed message latency and jitter
 fault tolerant and time triggered services in hardware versus software
 fast error detection and signalling, supports redundant channels
 fault tolerant, synchronous, global time base
 bus guardian error containment at the physical layer (electronic or optical)
 arbitration free transmission
 it supports all popular network configurations (bus, star, multiple star).
 Flexray is not TTP/C, but it has some features of TTP/C such as a time division multiple
access (TDMA) bus access scheme. The message format of Flexray consists of a static
header plus 246 byte dynamic frame lengths containing membership and
acknowledgement fields.
 Flexray is one of many in-vehicle protocols either in use or proposed for data
communications.
 With CAN protocols network access is on demand and becomes a real issue when
several modules contend for the bus, each with high priority messages.
 Once agreement is reached to regulate the placement of messages and to plan for
present and future content a deterministic communications channel is realised.
 Flexray is one such solution to the contention issues of event based protocols

Competing future communications protocols

 It is clear that modern personal transportation vehicles, hybrid vehicles in particular,
will rely on multiple communications buses per vehicle.
 This is because the need for communications varies according to systems supported
and the speed at which information must be shared.
 Body modules for powered seats, windows, mirrors and the like are slow functions
and low speed communications suffices (class A).
 With the introduction of x-by-wire functionality there is a pressing demand for real
time control in chassis, power-train and safety related systems.
 In some circles there is a belief that as many as eight different communications
networks will be required in the future vehicle.
 These networks include class-A, B and C, as already defined plus a dedicated network
for diagnostics, mobile media, wireless, airbag deployment within the safety restraint
system (SRS) and x-by-wire.
EEE BMCE|E L E C T R I C & H Y B R I D V E H I C L E S Notes by JPM 6
 Since each of these categories would require their own protocol, there can be multiple
protocols in use per vehicle. These protocols are now defined:
 Class A networks are for general purpose communications.
 Many proprietary schemes have been devised but those are disappearing, as are all such
closed architecture and OEM specific protocols.
 For class A the leading contender is LIN, the smart connector protocol.
 A LIN consortium is now developing.
 Class B networks cover the majority of non-critical system communications such as
battery monitoring, transmission shifting, etc.
 Network traffic is event driven with some periodic traffic (time stamped data).
 For class B the standard remains CAN.
 Class C networks are reserved for faster, higher bandwidth functions such as engine
management, timing signals, fuel injection and so on.
 Message speed is 125 kb/s to 500 kb/s over predominantly twisted pair copper wire.
ISO 11898 is the leading CAN protocol for class C networks.
 Emissions diagnostics now use ISO 14230 standard on the data link connector
between the engine controller and the external diagnostic connector (used for scan testing).
 High speed CAN is being phased in as the diagnostics protocol, and by 2007 this will be
the only legally acceptable protocol for on-board diagnostics (OBD II and soon OBD III).

 Mobile media or ‘PC-on-wheels’ for the mobile office will continue to rely on dual
networks, one for low speed (250 kb/s) and one for high speed (>100 Mb/s).
 The low speed channel is for telematics, navigation aides and information services such
as audio.
 High speed channels for real time audio and video will likely require fibre-optic media
at 10 Mb/s, 25 Mb/s and possibly 50 Mb/s rates.
 The leading protocols are AutoPC for information and telematics.
 D2B is already being used and MOST is the top contender in this area.
 The integrated data bus (IDB) consortium continues to favour fire wire as part of their
IDB-1394 initiative.
 Wireless protocols are necessary for cell phone and palm pilots (PDAs) but could
eventually include cameras and pagers. (By far the leading protocol is Bluetooth, but here again; IEEE 802.11
appears a strong contender.)
 The new protocol on the block is ultra-wide band (UWB) communications (approved by US
Federal Communications Commission -February 2002.) - Essentially a‘white noise’ communications
scheme, UWB transmits information using a large number of frequencies
simultaneously, each at very low power.
 A safety bus is used for airbag deployment where multiple safety restraint systems are
employed in the same vehicle and must be coordinated. (The safety bus contains information on vehicle
acceleration and jerk along with occupant sensing, seat belt pretensioners (such as pyrotechnic types) and other sensors. )
 The leading contenders are Delphi’s Safe-by-Wire and the Bosch-Siemens BST
protocol.
 Drive-by-Wire is a protocol proposed for drive (electronic throttle control), steer and
brake by wire functions.
 These are high speed, real time, control functions that demand deterministic message
transmission over a communications channel.
 The leading contenders are TTCAN (1-2 Mb/s) and Flexray (10 Mb/s). (The most important
concern in x-by-wire systems is fault tolerance. Generally, dual bus architecture for redundancy is required along with dual
microprocessors, bus watchdog and proven reliability.)

EEE BMCE|E L E C T R I C & H Y B R I D V E H I C L E S Notes by JPM 7

ENERGY MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES: INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY MANAGEMENT
STRATEGIES USED IN HYBRID AND ELECTRIC VEHICLES*

CONTROL SYSTEM IN HEV/EV

 Function of the Control System in HEVs and EVs The major functions of the control
system are:
i. To maximize the fuel efficiency
ii. To minimize the exhaust emissions.
 The minor functions of the control system are component monitoring and protection
such as:
i. battery state of charge (SOC) monitoring
ii. Battery temperature monitoring
iii. EM overheating
iv. ICE overheating
 As the HEV’s operation mode changes, several parameters of the ICE that have to be
controlled are:
i. Ignition timing
ii. Tuned intake manifold
iii. Camshaft angle for exhaust valves
iv. Camshaft angle for intake valves
v. Fuel injector settings which includes
a. Timing of injection
b. Fuel flow rate

 A modern control system for HEV may use only a few feedback control loop.
 The driver is one of the control elements and acts on the error.
 If the HEV is moving too slowly, the driver steps on the accelerator pedal and it the
vehicle is too fast, the driver steps on the brake pedal.

 The hybrid ECU is the master controller and it controls the other subcomponents of
the vehicle such as ICE, EM, power electronics, etc.

OVERVIEW OF CONTROL SYSTEM:

 The Electronic Control Unit (ECU) Typical control architecture of HEV is shown in
following Figure.
 In the Figure it can be seen that there are multiple ECUs such as:
i. Hybrid ECU
ii. ICE ECU
iii. EM ECU
iv. Transmission ECU
v. Power Electronics ECU
vi. Battery ECU or Battery Management System

A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF EACH OF THE ECUS IS GIVEN BELOW.

Hybrid ECU:
 The Hybrid ECU is in command of all other ECUs and selects the operational mode
based on the driver’s input.
 The hybrid ECU is responsible for system wide energy management.
 Typically the goal of control is to minimize the fuel consumption.
 For each litre of petrol, the hybrid ECU tries to provide maximum mileage.
 To do this, the hybrid ECU allows or prohibits ICE shutoff.
EEE BMCE|E L E C T R I C & H Y B R I D V E H I C L E S Notes by JPM 8
 The hybrid ECU commands
» The amount of torque and power from the motor and ICE
» The amount and timing of power generation to charge battery.
 The hybrid ECU is the heart of the control architecture of any HEV and it is also
known ENERGY MANAGEMENT STRATEGY (EMS).

ICE EMU:
 This controls the various ICE parameters discussed in previous section
EM ECU:
 The EM ECU is responsible for switching of the EM from motoring mode to the
generator mode and also controls the motor to deliver the torque demanded by the
hybrid ECU.
 The EM ECU consists of various control strategies such as Constant Torque Control,
Field Weakening Control, etc.
Transmission ECU:
 The transmission ECU provides the correct gear ratio to control the torques and
angular speeds of the EM and the ICE.
Power Electronics ECU:
 Having power from a battery is only the first step.
 The power must be delivered to the EM, in the motoring mode, at the voltage and
current needed.
 For regenerative braking, the power must be accepted from the EM.
 The function of the power electronic ECU is to receive commands from hybrid ECU, to
control inverter energy flow both ways, that is, charge and discharge, to control
switching of EM between motor and generator modes and to control switching of EM
between motor and generator modes.
EEE BMCE|E L E C T R I C & H Y B R I D V E H I C L E S Notes by JPM 9
Battery ECU or Battery Management System:
 The battery ECU or the battery management system (BMS) monitors and measures
temperature and assures cooling is adequate.
 The BMS avoids the stress of heat and over-temperature and the effects of excessive
charging or discharging are eliminated or lessened.
 The BMS is essentially for long battery life and optimum fuel efficiency.
Control Area Network (CAN)
 The CAN is a fast, high rate network enabling communication between ECUs.
 In CAN most data can be updated every 10ms and the data is checked to assure data
reliability.
 Refer previous section for details

CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENT ENERGY MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES*

 The hybrid ECU is the heart of the control architecture of any HEV and it is also
known ENERGY MANAGEMENT STRATEGY (EMS).

Classification of Hybrid ECU

 The EMS can be classified into following broad categories:

i. Rule based
ii. Optimization based

 The Rule Based strategies consist of following subcategories:

i. Deterministic Control: The deterministic controllers are

subdivided into
a. Power follower
b. State Machine
c. Thermostat Control.
ii. Fuzzy based: The fuzzy based control strategies are of three types
a. Predictive,
b. Adaptive
c. Conventional

 The Optimization based strategies are of following types:

i. Global Optimization: The global optimization methods are:

a. Linear programming methods
b. Dynamic Programming
c. Stochastic Dynamic Programming
d. Genetic Algorithms
ii. Real time Optimization: The real time optimization techniques
are of following types:
a. EFC minimization
b. Robust control
c. Model predictive
d. Decoupling Control

EEE BMCE|E L E C T R I C & H Y B R I D V E H I C L E S Notes by JPM 10

 Figure the classification tree of the various control techniques is shown.

Rule Based Control Method

 Basic Principles of Rule Based Control Methods:
 Rule based control strategies can cope with the various operating modes of HEV.
 The rule based strategies are developed using engineering insight and intuition,
analysis of the ICE efficiency charts shown in following Figure 2 and the analysis of
electrical component efficiency charts.

EEE BMCE|E L E C T R I C & H Y B R I D V E H I C L E S Notes by JPM 11

 An example of developing rule based strategy can be explained using the ICE
efficiency map shown in Figure 3.
 The lines, which are drawn using engineering insight and intuition, divide the map
into 3 regions: A, B, and C. The rules for operation of ICE in these three regions are:
i. In the region A only EM is used because in this region the fuel efficiency of the
ICE is poor.
ii. In region B only ICE is used since this the region of high fuel efficiency.
iii. In region C both ICE and EM are used.
Deterministic Rule Based Strategies
 Findings based on analysis of power flow in HEV drive train, ICE efficiency map and
human experiences are utilized to design deterministic rules.
 These rules are generally implemented using lookup tables to split requested power
between the ICE and EM.
 The most commonly used strategies are:
i. Power follower control
ii. Modified power follower
iii. State Machine based controller
iv. Thermostat (on/off) control
Power follower control
 In this strategy the ICE is the primary source of power and the EM is used to provide
additional power when needed by the vehicle.
 Care is always taken to maintain the SOC of batteries within safe limits.
 The rule base that is generally used is:
i. Below a certain minimum vehicle speed, only the EM is used.
ii. If the demanded power is > the maximum power that the ICE can
produce at its operating speed, the EM is used to produce excess
power.
iii. The EM charges the batteries by regenerative braking.
iv. The ICE shuts off when the power demand falls below a limit at the
operating speed. This is done to prevent inefficient operation of ICE.
 This is a very simple and effective strategy but the major disadvantage is that the
efficiency of the entire drive train is not optimized.
Modified power follower
 In order to improve the power follower controller a cost function is introduced.
 The role of this cost function is to strike a balance between fuel consumption and
emissions at all operating points of HEV.
EEE BMCE|E L E C T R I C & H Y B R I D V E H I C L E S Notes by JPM 12
State Machine Based controller
 The state machine dictates the operating mode of the HEV such:
i. ENGINE (ICE propelling the vehicle)
ii. BOOSTING (both ICE and EM propelling the vehicle)
iii. CHARGING (ICE propelling the vehicle and charging the
battery)
 The transition between the operating modes is decided based on:
i. the change in driver demand
ii. a change in vehicle operating condition
iii. a system or a subsystem fault.
Fuggy Logic (FLC) Based Controllers for HEVs
 Looking into a hybrid drive train as a multi-domain, nonlinear and time varying
plant, fuzzy logic seems to be the most logical approach to the problem.
 Instead of using deterministic rules, the decision making property of fuzzy logic can
be adopted to realize a real time and sub-optimal power split.
 Fuzzy logic is an extension of the conventional rule-based methods and has following
advantages over them:
i. Robustness: It is inherently robust because it does not require precise, noise
free inputs and the output is a smooth function despite a wide range of input
variations.
ii. Adaptation: Since FLC processes user defined rules governing the system, it
can be modified easily to improve or drastically alter system performance.
iii. Flexibility: FLC is not limited to a few feedback inputs and one or two outputs
and it is not necessary to measure or compute rate-of-change of parameters.
How to Use Fuzzy Logic in Design of Controllers
 The energy management and control strategy using FLC performs following actions:
i. Maximizes fuel economy, minimize emissions and distribute the driver’s
request for power between two sources: ICE and Motor.
ii. Maximize fuel economy at any point in operation, that is, provide dynamic or
instantaneous optimization.
iii. maximize some other attributes such as acceleration of vehicle
The four components of FLC are:
i. Fuzzification, which is the change from crisp values to fuzzy values.
(For ICE speed, the crisp value may be 2000rpm and a possible rule for ICE speed may be “If ICE
rpm is too low, then inject more fuel”. The fuzzy value associated with the “If X, then Z” statement
would be for X<2000 rpm. )
ii. Rule base has a collection of rules: several hundred rules may be developed
and applied.
iii. Inference applies the defined rules to the inputs.
iv. De-fuzzification transforms the results of the inference process to crisp
outputs.
Fuzzy Strategy
 The FLC, explained in this section, satisfies the following objectives:
a. minimize NOx emissions
b. sustain battery SOC
c. achieve desired torque requested by the driver
 The inputs to this FLC are:
i. Acceleration pedal stroke (Acc)
ii. EM speed ( Ѡem )
EEE BMCE|E L E C T R I C & H Y B R I D V E H I C L E S Notes by JPM 13
 The configuration of the drive train: An induction motor (IM) used in the drive train and the IM is directly
coupled to the ICE.
 Since the IM is directly coupled to the diesel ICE, it will be in the field weakening region in most of the ICE
operating, the generating torque decreases as the ICE speed increases.
 Hence, it is required to describe the required torque as a ratio defined as K to the rated torque at a
rotational speed.
 The positive K means that the IM acts as a powering source and negative K means that the IM acts as a
generator.
 Once K is determined, the torque command becomes
 Torque Command= rated torque at K X a rotational speed
 Some basic principles of generating the torque command from the acceleration pedal stroke and ICE
rotational speed in the HEV can be described as follows:
Low ICE Speed:
 When the ICE rotational speed is low, it generates pollutant emissions with low efficiency.
 Hence, in this operating condition, the torque assistant control by the IM should be performed. Assistant
torque is commanded to increase in proportion to the acceleration pedal stroke as in the conventional ICE
vehicle, that is:
 K acceleration pedal stroke
Medium ICE Speed:
 When the diesel ICE’s speed is medium, it can supply sufficient torque to the hybrid drive train.
 Hence, battery recharging control is performed instead of torque assistance control when acceleration
pedal stroke is below some extent.
 The torque assistance of the IM should be should be achieved to satisfy the driver’s acceleration need if
the acceleration pedal is pressed beyond some extent.
 Since, the diesel ICE torque is subjected to saturation beyond 80% of the pedal acceleration pedal stroke;
the motoring action of the IM is made to begin from that point.
High ICE Speed:
 When the diesel ICE speed is high, the torque assistance control is performed as that of the medium speed
range.
 In battery recharging control the IM’s output power is kept constant. Now since the ICE can produce
more power than in the medium speed range, the factor should be made to be negatively greater in order
to supply more power to the batteries than that of the medium speed range.
 As the speed increases, the ratio of the power capability of the ICE to that of the IM increases.
 Hence, it is beneficial to recharge the battery at high speed, rather than at medium speed.

Implementation of Fuzzy Logic

 Based on the three principled of operation of ICE, discussed above, the fuzzy rule
base can be developed.
 The development of the FLC is described in the following subsections.

Input / Output Membership Functions for Fuzzy Logic

 For the considered example, there are two input variables namely:
i. The acceleration pedal stroke Acc
ii. The IM rotational speed Ѡrpm

The ranges of the input variables are set as follows:

i. The Acc is set to zero when the driver does not press the
acceleration pedal at all and set to a 100 when the driver presses
the acceleration pedal completely.
ii. The rpm Ѡrpm can vary from the diesel ICE’s idling speed to its
maximum speed.
 The output is the normalized ratio of the torque command to rated torque at a speed.
 The inputs and the outputs are normalized between zero and one.

COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT ENERGY MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES*

Refer previous Sections

EEE BMCE|E L E C T R I C & H Y B R I D V E H I C L E S Notes by JPM 14