ETHICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUES
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In studying engineering ethics, there are several theories
that will be considered
Our basic ethical problem-solving technique will utilize different
theories and approaches to analyze the problem and then try to
determine the best solution.
The goal of an ethical analysis is to determine what the
ethical path is.
Even though we will use multiple theories to examine ethical
problems, each theory applied to a problem will not
necessarily lead to a different solution.
Frequently, different theories yield the same solution. 2
Moral Theory
There are four ethical theories that will be considered here, each differing
according to what is held to be the most important moral concept
Utilitarianism seeks to produce the most utility, defined as a balance between good
and bad consequences of an action, taking into account the consequences for
everyone affected.
A different approach is provided by duty ethics. Duty ethics contends that there are
duties that should be performed (for example, the duty to treat others fairly or the
duty not to injure others) regardless of whether these acts lead to the most good.
Rights ethics emphasizes that we all have moral rights, and any action that violates
these rights is ethically unacceptable. Like duty ethics, the ultimate overall good of the
actions is not taken into account.
Virtue ethics regards actions as right that manifest good character traits (virtues) and
regards actions as bad that display bad character traits (vices); this ethical theory
focuses on the type of person we should strive to be.
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Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism holds that those actions are good that serve to
maximize human well-being.
emphasis in utilitarianism is not on maximizing the well-
being of the individual, but rather on maximizing the well-
being of society as a whole, and as such it is somewhat of a
collectivist approach.
Eg:
the building of dams Waste Incinerator Plant
disposal of nuclear wastes medicinal uses of radioisotopes and nuclear
generation of electricity
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subjective
aspects of a
cost–benefit analysis decision ?
loss of a scenic loss of an endangered species
wilderness
area
When looking at an ethical problem, the first
step should be to determine what the right
course of action is and then factor in the
financial costs in choosing between ethical
alternatives. 5
Duty Ethics and Rights Ethics
Similar to each other ( considered together )
These theories hold that those actions are good that respect the
rights of the individual.
good consequences for society as a whole are not the only moral
consideration.
duty ethics – held that moral duties are fundamental. Ethical
actions are those actions that could be written down on a list
of duties: be honest, don’t cause suffering to other people, be
fair to others, etc.
ethical acts are a result of proper performance of one’s duties
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Virtue Ethics
interested in determining what kind of people we should be
A virtuous person exhibits good and beneficial qualities
actions are considered right if they support good character
traits (virtues) and wrong if they support bad character traits
(vices)
Virtue ethics focuses on words such as responsibility,
honesty, competence, and loyalty, which are virtues.
Other virtues might include trustworthiness, fairness, caring,
citizenship, and respect.
Vices could include dishonesty,disloyalty, irresponsibility, or
incompetence
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Virtue Ethics
To use virtue ethics in an analysis of an ethical problem,
you should first identify the virtues or vices that are
applicable to the [Link], determine what course of
action each of these suggests.
In many ways, this theory may seem to be mostly personal
ethics and not particularly applicable to engineering or
professional ethics. However, personal morality
cannot, or at any rate should not, be separated from
professional morality. If a behavior is virtuous in the
individual’s personal life, the behavior is virtuous in his
or her professional life as well.
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How do we decide which theory is applicable to a given
problem?
don’t have to choose from among these theories
can use all of them to analyze a problem from different
angles and see what result each of the theories gives.
This allows us to examine a problem from
different perspectives to see what conclusion each one
reaches.
Frequently, the result will be the same even though the
theories are very different.
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A chemical plant near a small city discharges a
hazardous waste into the groundwater. If the city
takes its water from wells, the water supply for
the city will be compromised and significant health
problems for the community may result.
Rights ethics……
Utilitarian………
Virtue ethics…..
Duty ethics ……
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Rights ethics indicates that this pollution is unethical, since it causes
harm to many of the residents.
A utilitarian analysis would probably also come to the same
conclusion, since the economic benefits of the plant would almost
certainly be outweighed by the negative effects of the pollution and
the costs required to ensure a safe municipal water supply.
Virtue ethics would say that discharging wastes into
groundwater is irresponsible and harmful to individuals and so
shouldn’t be done.
In this case, all of the ethical theories lead to the same conclusion.
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What happens when the different theories seem
to give different answers?
the answers given by each of the theories must be examined in detail,
compared with each other, and carefully weighed.
Generally, rights and duty ethics should take precedence over utilitarian
[Link] is because the rights of individuals should receive
relatively stronger weight than the needs of society as a whole.
For example, an action that led to the death of even one person is
generally viewed very negatively, regardless of the overall benefit to
society.
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Since the world has different foundations
for its ethical systems, it might seem that what
we learn in one place eg USA won’t be
applicable in our business dealings in, for
example, Japan, India, Africa, or Saudi Arabia.
Is this thinking correct/incorrect?
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ANALYSIS OF ISSUES IN ETHICAL PROBLEMS
The issues involved in understanding ethical problems can
be split into three categories:
factual
conceptual
moral
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Factual issues
Factual issues involve what is actually known about a
case—i.e., what the facts are.
Although this concept seems straightforward, the facts of a
particular case are not always clear and may be
controversial.
An example of facts that are not necessarily clear can be found in the
controversy in contemporary society regarding abortion rights.
In engineering, there are controversies over facts as well. For example, global
warming is of great concern to society as we continue to emit greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere. However, the global warming process is not fully
understood, and the need to curtail emission of these gases is a controversial
topic.
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Factual issues can often be resolved through
research to establish the truth.
It is not always possible to achieve a final
determination of the “truth” that everyone can agree
on, but generally, further research helps clarify the
situation, can increase the areas of agreement, and
can sometimes achieve consensus on the facts.
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Conceptual issues
Conceptual issues have to do with the meaning or applicability of an idea.
In engineering ethics, this might mean defining what constitutes a bribe as
opposed to an acceptable gift, or determining whether certain business
information is proprietary.
In the case of the bribe, the value of the gift is probably a well-known fact.
What isn’t known is whether accepting it will lead to unfair influence on a business
decision.
For example, conceptually it must be determined if the gift of tickets to a
sporting event by a potential supplier of parts for your project is meant to
influence your decision or is just a nice gesture between friends
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Conceptual issues are resolved by agreeing on the
meaning and applicability of terms and concepts.
Sometimes agreement isn’t possible, but as with
factual issues, further analysis of the concepts at least
clarifies some of the issues and helps to facilitate
agreement.
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moral issues
Once the factual and conceptual issues have been resolved, at least to the extent
possible, all that remains is to determine which moral principle is applicable to
the situation. Resolution of moral issues is often more obvious. Once the
problem is defined, it is usually clear which moral concept applies, and the
correct decision becomes obvious.
In our example of a “gift” offered by a sales representative, once
it is determined whether it is simply a gift or is really a bribe, then the
appropriate action is obvious. If we determine that it is indeed a bribe, then it
cannot ethically be accepted.
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moral issues are resolved by agreement as to which moral
principles are pertinent and how they should be applied.
Often, all that is required to solve a particular ethical problem
is a deeper analysis of the issues involved according to the
appropriate principles.
Once the issues are analyzed and agreement is reached on the
applicable moral principles, it is clear what the resolution
should be.
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Examples of Gifts vs. Bribes
• During a sales visit, a sales representative offers you a coffee mug with his company’s
name and logo on it. The value of the mug is five dollars. Can you accept
this item? Does the answer to this question change if this item is a $350 crystal
bowl with the name of the company engraved on it? How about if there is no
engraving on it?
• Your meeting with a sales representative is running into the lunch hour. She
invites you to go out for lunch. You go to a fast-food restaurant and pay for your
own lunch. Is this practice acceptable? Does the answer to this question change
if you go to an expensive French restaurant? If she pays for lunch?
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Examples of Gifts vs. Bribes
• A sales representative from whom you often purchase asks if you would like to
play tennis with him this weekend at one of the local municipal courts. Should
you go? Is the answer to this question different if the match is at an exclusive
local club to which he belongs? What if he pays the club’s guest fee for you?
• A company sales representative would like you to attend a one-day sales seminar
in Kuala Lumpur. Your company will pay for your trip. Should you go? How about if
the meeting is in Batam? What if the sales representative’s company is going to
pay for you to go? What if your family is invited as well?
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Bribery can easily be analyzed by looking at the factual,
conceptual, and moral issues
Frequently, the facts will be obvious: who offered a gift, what its
value was, and what its purpose was.
Conceptual issues will be somewhat more difficult, since it must be
determined whether the gift is of sufficient value to influence a
decision or whether that influence is the intent of the gift.
Once the conceptual issues have been worked out and it is clear
whether or not the gift is a bribe, the moral issue is often very
clear.
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