Module 4

Project Management Fundamentals and Prototyping

The efficient working of a business is unimaginable without project management as it is a

critical component of any organisation. It is a process used to ensure that all project goals and
objectives are rightly met. It involves planning, organising, and overseeing the project from
start to finish. Whether you are working on a project for your company or a client, it is
essential to understand the fundamentals of project management.

Successful projects don’t just happen. They’re born from the blood (papercuts), sweat, and
tears of skilled project managers and their teams. And without a good understanding of
project management fundamentals, projects don’t succeed nearly as often.

Project management is the planning and monitoring of complex activities to achieve a

business goal within a finite time frame and budget.

Project management is the employment of methods, processes, knowledge, skills and

experience to achieve specific project objectives according to agreed criteria. It is a
temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product or service. Project managers have
a wide variety of responsibilities that include but are not limited to developing project plans,
acquiring project resources, managing project risks, and monitoring project progress. They
must wear many hats and have a wide range of skills to be successful.

Fundamentals of Project Management

Project management is a process that can be applied to any type of project, whether it’s
developing software, building a house, or planning an event. Fundamentals of project
management include every process that takes the project from initiation to completion and
make it a success.

Some of the most important project management fundamentals include:

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  Defining the scope of the project
 Creating a project plan
 Managing project risks
 Tracking project progress
 Phases of a project lifecycle
 Communicating with project stakeholders

Understand A Project And Define Its Scope

The first step in project management is to understand what a project is. A project is a
temporary endeavour with a defined beginning and end to create a unique product, service, or
result.
The project’s objectives are the goals that the project is trying to achieve. Project managers
must clearly understand what they’re trying to achieve. It requires defining the project’s
objectives and scope.
On the other hand, the project’s scope is a description of what the project includes and
excludes. Defining the scope helps project managers to understand the project’s boundaries
and makes it easier to create a project plan.
Example:
Let’s say you’re planning a new software for food delivery. In this case, the project’s
objectives might be to create user-friendly and efficient software. The project’s scope would
then include everything necessary to develop the software, such as researching, designing,
and coding.

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Create A Comprehensive Project Plan
The project plan is the foundation of your project management system. It should include all
aspects of your project, from the initial planning stages to completion. Your project plan
should be comprehensive and well-organised to easily track your project’s progress and
identify potential problems.
Setting realistic goals and milestones is one of the most critical aspects of your project plan.
If you set unrealistic goals, you’ll likely find yourself falling behind schedule and over
budget. Likewise, if you put too many milestones, your project will become bogged down in
details, and you’ll miss the big picture.
Another important aspect of your project plan is to create a realistic budget. If you don’t
adequately budget for your project, you’ll find yourself scrambling to find the funds to keep
the project on track.
By creating a comprehensive project plan, you’ll be setting your project up for success from
the very beginning. A plan will keep you covered regarding what needs to be done when it
should be completed, and how much it will cost.
Example:
When starting a project from scratch, the project plan is your bible. It should include
everything from the initial planning stages to project completion. Make sure to include
milestones, realistic goals, and a detailed budget. A comprehensive project plan will always
take your project towards success.

Detect And Manage Risks Involved

A project of any size or type involves some risks. A project manager must be aware of all the
risks involved in a project and should have a plan to deal with them. He should also
constantly monitor the project to identify any new risks that may arise.
Project management is not just about completing the project on time and within budget. It
also ensures the project is completed safely and without accidents. A project manager must
therefore understand health and safety regulations well.
Detecting risks at the right time and taking corrective action are one of the most essential
skills of a project manager. Managing risks entails the project manager employing various
project risk management tools and techniques. Some of the popular project management risk
control techniques are:
 Identify the probability and impact of each project risk.
 Sketch a contingency plan to deal with project risks.
 Conduct regular project reviews to identify any new risks.
 Communicate with all project stakeholders about the project risks.

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Track Project Progress
One of the project management fundamentals is tracking project progress. It involves
monitoring and recording the project’s progress against its milestones and objectives. It
allows project managers to identify any potential issues or delays and take corrective action
accordingly.
Some common techniques are used to track project progress, such as Gantt charts and earned
value analysis. Tracking progress will also help project managers assess whether the project
is on track to meet its goals and objectives. Such information can be used to make necessary
adjustments to the project plan.

Understand the Phases of the Project Lifecycle

Project managers use the project lifecycle framework to plan, track, and control their projects.
The project lifecycle consists of four phases: initiation, planning, execution, and closure.
In the initiation phase, project managers define the project’s goals and objectives and create a
project charter. It is a document that outlines the project’s scope, timeline, and budget.
In the planning phase, project managers develop a project plan. The project plan is a
document that outlines the project’s tasks, milestones, and resources.
In the execution phase, project managers carry out the project plan. They track and monitor
the project’s progress and change the project plan as needed.
Example:
When you start a project, for instance, developing new software, you will first need to come
up with an idea and project scope. This is the initiation phase. If the project is approved, you
will need to develop a project plan including all the milestones. After the project plan is
approved, you can start working on the project, which is the execution phase. And finally,
when the project is completed, you will need to close the project and conduct a project
review.

Communicate Well With Stakeholders

One of the project manager’s most important responsibilities is to keep all project
stakeholders informed about the project’s progress. It includes project sponsors, customers,
and project team members. By keeping everyone up-to-date on project developments, the
project manager can avoid potential problems arising from miscommunication.
The project manager should also develop a good working relationship with all project
stakeholders. It will make it easier to get buy-in on project decisions and ensure everyone is
working towards the same goal. Stakeholders are more likely to support a project that they
feel invested in, so the project manager needs to nurture these relationships.

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What Is a Project Management Methodology?
A project management methodology or approaches is a set of principles, tools and
techniques that are used to plan, execute and manage projects. Project management
methodologies help project managers lead team members and manage work while facilitating
team collaboration.

The most commonly used project management approaches that you can use are:
1. Waterfall methodology
The Waterfall method is a traditional approach to project management. In it, tasks and phases
are completed in a linear, sequential manner, and each stage of the project must be completed
before the next begins.
The stages of Waterfall project management generally follow this sequence:
 Requirements
 Analysis
 Design
 Construction
 Testing
 Deployment & maintenance
 Progress flows in one direction, like a real waterfall.
Also like a real waterfall, though, this can quickly get dangerous. Since everything is mapped
out at the beginning, there’s a lot of room for error if expectations don’t match up with
reality. And there’s no going back to a previous stage once it’s completed (just imagine trying
to swim against a waterfall — not fun).
When to use it: The waterfall approach is great for manufacturing and construction projects,
which are highly structured, and when it’s too expensive to pivot or change anything after the
fact. The waterfall method makes use of Gantt charts for planning and scheduling.
Try this project management methodology if:
 The end goal of your project is clearly defined — and isn’t going to change.
 The stakeholders know exactly what they want (and it isn’t going to change).
 Your project is consistent and predictable (i.e. isn’t going to change).
 You’re working in a regulated industry that needs extensive project tracking or
documentation.
 You might need to bring new people into the project midway through and get them up
to speed quickly.

2. Agile Methodology
What it is: In a nutshell, Agile project management is an evolving and collaborative way to
self-organize across teams. When implementing the agile methodology, project planning and

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work management are adaptive, evolutionary in development, seeking early delivery and are
always open to change if that leads to process improvement. It’s fast and flexible, unlike
waterfall project management.
The agile methodology offers project teams a very dynamic way to work and collaborate and
that’s why it is a very popular project management methodology for product and software
development.
The key principles of agile project management methodologies are:
 It’s collaborative.
 It’s quick.
 It’s open to data-driven change.
As such, agile project management methodologies usually involve short phases of work with
frequent testing, reassessment, and adaptation throughout.
When to use it: The practice originated in software development and works well in that
culture. How do you know if agile is for you? It has been applied to non-software products
that seek to drive forward with innovation and have a level of uncertainty, such as computers,
motor vehicles, medical devices, food, clothing, music and more. It’s also being used in other
types of projects that need a more responsive and fast-paced production schedule, such as
marketing.
 Try this project management methodology if:
 Your project is liable to change.
 You’re not sure at the outset what the solution will look like.
 You need to work quickly, and it’s more important that you see speedy progress than
perfect results.
 Your stakeholders or client needs (or wants) to be involved at every stage.

Benefits of Hybrid Project Management Software

Project management software that is flexible enough to work in any kind of work
environment is going to have advantages over a tool that offers only one. Here are some of
the benefits of a hybrid project management software:
 Flexible tool that can pivot with ease
 Multiple project views to work how you want
 Real-time collaboration for greater productivity
 Connect hybrid teams regardless of location, work style or skill set
 In-app and email notifications to keep everyone on the same page
 Live dashboards to track progress and performance
 Resource management tools to balance workload
 Schedule and plan with interactive Gantt charts
 Reports to keep stakeholders updated

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Agile vs Waterfall: The Major Differences
There are many differences between agile and waterfall, but the major ones lie in the details.
Linear vs. Iterative
Waterfall as a process is linear, while agile is iterative. What that means is waterfall works
best when you assess scope and any possible risks at the outset, whereas with agile, you don’t
need to define the scope in the beginning, and you can make change requests as long as it’s
within time and budget.
Large vs. Small
Waterfall project management or software development is better for large teams and doesn’t
require too much coordination, as everyone has a role and knows what part they play in the
project. Agile works best when it’s executed inside small to medium-sized teams that have a
high level of cross-integratio

When to use Agile-Waterfall Hybrid?

The Agile-Waterfall Hybrid model can be used in two typical scenarios:
 The product consists of (equally important) hardware and software components
 The product is a piece of software which has back-end and front-end technology
There is also a third sub scenario for Hybrid software development. In most cases, software
projects are started to fulfil a customer request. It's still relatively common that the client does
not like the full Agile approach, as the budget and timeframe due to the lack of a detailed
planning phase cannot be defined and fixed well in advance. In this case, the Hybrid model
can be a good solution. The Waterfall approach can be used for application design, planning,
and requirements definition, while an Agile method is used for development and testing.

Why take the Hybrid approach?

“Plan with Waterfall, execute with Agile, and speed up the whole process.”
Waterfall is not a speedy methodology. Deliverable results will only show at the end of the
development cycle, so it could take months or even years before the customer sees the final
product. Agile shortens the delivery time, and makes it easy to gather feedback in the early
stages to better suit customer requirements.
The main reasons for using the Agile-Waterfall Hybrid model are:
 Shortens design, analysis and planning, but lets you define project frames including
budget and time of delivery
 Maintain compliance with standards
 Enhance collaboration
 When the adoption of the Agile culture is problematic, Hybrid is a good first step

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 Don’t forget that the Hybrid model requires strong collaboration between the two types of
teams. Therefore, special communication forms and channels have to be implemented.
Usually, those using the Hybrid model need training for both types of teams so as to make
sure they all understand the basics as well as the benefits of taking this approach.

Roles and Responsibilities of Project Manager

"Project Managers play the lead role in planning, executing, monitoring, controlling, and
closing projects. They're expected to deliver a project on time, within the budget, and brief
while keeping everyone in the know and happy."
— Cam Lee, Rock Agency

“Being a Project Manager is like being an artist, you have the different colored process
streams combining into a work of art.” – Greg Cimmarrusti

At the heart of successful project management is a project manager, who like the ‘captain of a
cruise ship’, ensures a smooth ride. When it comes to the roles and responsibilities of the
project manager, it starts with creating strategies, delegating tasks, monitoring progress,
ensuring coordination among team members, and collaboration.
It becomes your responsibility to complete the company’s most important projects, and for
this, you will have to polish your leadership skills, coordination abilities, and motivational
skills continuously.
In addition to overseeing all aspects of project planning and execution, You need to take
proactive and sound decisions to resolve issues and solve problems that arise during a project.
Project managers are leaders — they not only ensure projects are delivered on time and
within budget but must also engage and encourage their teams and inspire their clients. They
need strong critical thinking capabilities to solve problems as they arise and finely-tuned
communication skills (like a knack for customer service) to ensure everyone remains
informed, motivated, and on board. It’s no wonder that project managers are considered
critical to the success of any venture.

8 key roles and responsibilities

1. Activity and resource planning
Planning is instrumental in meeting project deadlines, and many projects fail due to poor
planning. First and foremost, good project managers define the project’s scope and determine
available resources. Good project managers know how to realistically set time estimates and
evaluate the team's or teams’ capabilities.
They then create a clear and concise plan to both execute the project and monitor its progress.
Projects are naturally unpredictable, so good project managers know how to make
adjustments along the way as needed before the project reaches its final stages.
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2. Organizing and motivating a project team
Good project managers don’t get their teams bogged down with elaborate spreadsheets, long
checklists, and whiteboards. Instead, they put their teams front and center. They develop
clear, straightforward plans that stimulate their teams to reach their full potential. They cut
down on bureaucracy and steer their teams down a clear path to the final goal.

3. Controlling time management

Clients usually judge a project’s success or failure on whether it has been delivered on time.
Therefore, meeting deadlines are non-negotiable. Good project managers know how to set
realistic deadlines, and how to communicate them consistently to their teams.
They know how to effectively do the following:
 Define activity
 Sequence activity
 Estimate the duration of activity
 Develop a schedule
 Maintain a schedule
4. Cost estimating and developing the budget
Good project managers know how to keep a project within its set budget. Even if a project
meets a client’s expectations and is delivered on time, it will still be a failure if it goes wildly
over budget. Good project managers frequently review the budget and plan ahead to avoid
massive budget overruns.
5. Ensuring customer satisfaction
In the end, a project is only a success if the customer is happy. One of the key responsibilities
of every project manager is to minimize uncertainty, avoid any unwanted surprises, and
involve their clients in the project as much as is reasonably possible. Good project managers
know how to maintain effective communication and keep the company’s clients up-to-date.
6. Analyzing and managing project risk
The bigger the project is, the more likely there are to be hurdles and pitfalls that weren’t part
of the initial plan. Hiccups are inevitable, but good project managers know how meticulously
and almost intuitively, identify and evaluate potential risks before the project begins. They
know how to then avoid risks or at least minimize their impact.
7. Monitoring progress
During the initial stages, project managers and their teams have a clear vision and high hopes
of producing the desired result. However, the path to the finish line is never without some
bumps along the way. When things don’t go according to a plan, a project manager needs to
monitor and analyze both expenditures and team performance and to always efficiently take
corrective measures.

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8. Managing reports and necessary documentation
Finally, experienced project managers know how essential final reports and proper
documentation are. Good project managers can present comprehensive reports documenting
that all project requirements were fulfilled, as well as the projects’ history, including what
was done, who was involved, and what could be done better in the future.

Competencies of a Project Manger

Project managers need a wide range of competencies to successfully carry out their tasks.
While specific responsibilities vary based on industry and job title, our analysis of job
postings data shows that the top skills required across industries include:
1. Communication
2. Management
3. Leadership
4. Planning/Coordinating
5. Customer Service
6. Operations
7. Problem-solving

1. Communication
Communication is one of the most essential competencies for project managers. Project
managers communicate frequently with a range of people, including their project team and
project stakeholders. Therefore, it's crucial for project managers to know how to
communicate well with a wide variety of people. Some key communication skills for project
managers include: Active listening: written communication skills and public speaking skills.

2. Management
Project managers need effective management skills. Even if they haven’t had previous
experience managing a team, they’re responsible for guiding their team throughout the
lifecycle of a project.
Many times, this requires familiarity with several project management tools and software,
meaning project managers need intermediate technical expertise to effectively manage
projects. These types of programs are frequently used to plan, organize, and communicate
with teammates while simultaneously managing resources, budgets, and schedules.
Risk management, which involves identifying and planning for potential risks, is another
critical management competency. The most productive project managers are able to identify
risks at the outset of a project and develop proper mitigation plans.
Since risks are, by definition, uncertain events, it’s easy for project managers to ignore them
and assume they’ll never happen. But by knowing what positive or negative events may

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impact a project, managers can plan ahead to avoid major problems that could derail a
project.

3. Leadership
Leadership is another project management competency. When managing a team or project,
it’s crucial to have strong leadership skills. By effectively coaching, guiding, and motivating
your co-workers, you can help move a project forward and deliver a positive outcome. Strong
leaders also foster a productive work environment by communicating regularly with their
teams and helping their employees develop important project management skills themselves.
Leadership includes:
 Motivating team members: One of the key responsibilities of leaders is motivating their
teams. Therefore, it's important for leaders to understand motivation strategies and how
each of their individual team members are best motivated.
 Giving and receiving feedback: Leaders often give feedback to team members to help
them improve, but good leaders also take feedback from their team members. The
process of giving and receiving feedback can help leaders solve problems within a
project, spot risks and help team members succeed.
 Keeping projects on schedule: Leaders are responsible for monitoring the progress of a
team, which can help keep projects on schedule. Project managers who have leadership
characteristics understand the tasks and roles involved with their projects so they can
keep their projects on track.
 Showing a vision: Good leaders have a leadership vision. Project managers should
express a vision for a project that gives clarity and inspiration to everyone involved with
the project.
 Delegation: Leaders should be willing to delegate tasks to other team members when
they need to so that important tasks get done, giving the leader more time to focus on
other responsibilities. This can help maintain productivity and keep a project on
schedule.
 Conflict resolution: When people disagree about projects, it's important for the project
manager to play a role in resolving the conflict, which involves skills in listening,
communication and mediation.

4. Planning/Coordinating
Planning is a key component of project management. The most common causes of project
failure involve poor planning, along with:
 Changing priorities within an organization (40 percent)
 Inaccurate requirements (38 percent)
 Changes in project objectives (35 percent)
 Undefined project goals (30 percent)

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Naturally, scheduling is a core responsibility of project managers. However, if you’re adept at
juggling multiple schedules and can anticipate roadblocks before they occur, you’ll increase
your chances of delivering successful projects.

5. Customer Service
Customer dissatisfaction is one of the most common constraints project managers face. Even
if the project doesn’t involve traditional customers, stakeholders still need to be satisfied in
order for the project to ultimately succeed.
“When thinking about customer satisfaction as a constraint, project managers need to keep in
mind that simply delivering a project on time, within budget and scope does not mean the
customer will be satisfied,” says Bolick.
It’s critical for project managers to be proficient at customer service, and approach each
project from the perspective of meeting stakeholders’ needs.

6. Operations
While project managers and operations managers have differing roles and responsibilities,
they have several overlapping tasks as well. For this reason, project managers need to be
familiar with operations in order for their projects to succeed.
According to Bolick, there are two primary operations-related tasks project managers need to
be familiar with:
 Business operations changes: When components of business operations require
significant changes, project managers often need to manage these adjustments as projects
before delivering them to operations managers
 Closing projects: When a project is closing, project managers will collaborate with
operations managers to ensure that there’s a plan for its maintenance and deliverability

7. Problem Solving
While critical thinking and problem solving are skills all professionals could benefit from
learning, they’re particularly useful in the project management discipline. Rather than being
reactive, the best project managers are proactive and use their critical thinking skills to
navigate through tricky or ambiguous projects.
By remaining objective, analyzing the facts, and evaluating options without bias, project
managers are able to solve complex problems for organizations while delivering results on
time and within budget.

Phases of Project
The project management lifecycle is a step-by-step framework of best practices used to monitor
a project from its beginning to its end. It provides project managers with a structured way to
create, execute, and finish a project.

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This project management process generally includes four phases: initiating, planning,
executing, and closing. Some may also include a fifth “monitoring and controlling” phase
between the executing and closing stages. Each step plays a crucial role in making sure the
project has the best chance of achieving its goals.

Five phases of project management

The 5 basic phases in the project management process are:
1. Project Initiation
2. Project Planning
3. Project Execution
4. Project Monitoring and Controlling
5. Project Closing

1. Project Initiation
In the initiation phase, you will define the project. You will sort out the project goals, scope,
and resources of the project and what roles are needed on the team. Clarifying what
stakeholders expect out of the project, and what exactly the project is aiming to achieve (and
why) will give the project and team clear direction.
This is a crucial phase to the project’s success. Without clarity around what needs to be
achieved and why the project runs the risk of not accomplishing the end results and meeting the
expectations of stakeholders.
Some steps in the initiation phase include:
 Communicating with stakeholders to understand the purpose and desired outcomes of
the project
 Identifying the scope of the project
 Determining SMART goals (specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-
bound)
 Clarifying resources like budget and time constraints
 Confirming team size and roles required
 Determining how often and which stakeholders will be involved throughout the project

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  Compiling a project proposal and project charter
Tools and documents used in the initiation phase can include:
 Project proposal: The project proposal defines a project and outlines key dates,
requirements, and goals.
 Project charter: This is a definitive document that describes the project and main
details necessary to reach its goals. This can include potential risks, benefits,
constraints, and key stakeholders.
 RACI chart: A RACI chart, lays down the roles and responsibilities of members of a
project team

2. Project Planning
In the planning phase, you will determine the steps to actually achieve the project goals—the
“how” of completing a project.
You will establish budgets, timelines, milestones, source materials, and necessary documents.
This step also involves calculating and predicting risk, establishing change processes in place,
and outlining communication protocols. If the initiation phase is assembling your troops, the
planning phase is deciding what to do with them.
The planning phase can include the following steps:
 Deciding on milestones that lead up to goal completion
 Developing a schedule for tasks and milestones, including time estimates and potential
time buffers
 Establishing change processes
 Determining how and how often to communicate with team members and stakeholders
 Creating and signing documents such as non-disclosure agreements (NDAs) or requests
for proposal (RFPs)
 Assessing and managing risk by creating a risk register
 Holding a kick-off meeting to start a project
Tools you might use in a planning phase include:
 Gantt chart: A horizontal bar chart in which members can see what tasks must be
completed in which order and how long each task is expected to take
 Risk register: A chart that lists risks associated with the project, along with their
probability, potential impact, risk level, and mitigation plans

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3. Project Execution and complete tasks
Executing a project means putting your plan into action and keeping the team on track.
Generally, this means tracking and measuring progress, managing quality, mitigating risk,
managing the budget, and using data to inform your decisions.
Specific steps might include:
 Using tools like GANTT or burndown charts to track progress on tasks
 Responding to risks when they manifest
 Recording costs
 Keeping team members motivated and on task
 Keeping stakeholders informed of progress
 Incorporating changes via change requests
Some tools you might use include:
 Change requests: These are documents used to propose changes to a project’s scope or
goals
 Burndown chart: This chart breaks down tasks on a granular level and visualises the
amount of time remaining

4. Project monitoring and controlling

In the project management process, the third and fourth phases are not sequential in nature.
The project monitoring and controlling phase run simultaneously with project execution, thereby
ensuring that objectives and project deliverables are met.
As a project manager, you can make sure that no one deviates from the original plan by
establishing Critical Success Factors (CSF) and Key Performance Indicators (KPI).
During the monitoring phase of project management, the manager is also responsible for
quantitatively tracking the effort and cost during the process. This tracking not only ensures that
the project remains within the budget but also is important for future projects.

5. Project Closing
In the closing phase of the project management lifecycle, you will conclude project activities,
turn the finished product or service over to its new owners and assess the things that went well
and did not go so well. It will also be a time to celebrate your hard work.
Steps in the closing phase can include:
 Conducting retrospectives and take notes of changes you can implement in the future
 Communicating to stakeholders at the end of the project and providing an impact report

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  Communicating with the new owners of a project
 Creating a project closeout report
 Celebrating the end of the project and your successes
Tools used in the closing phase include:
 Impact report: This report compiles a series of metrics that showcase how your project
made a difference and is presented to your stakeholders.
 Project closeout report: A project closeout report provides a summary of your
project’s accomplishments, and provides key learnings for future project managers to
reference.

Rapid Prototyping
Rapid prototyping is all about getting an idea in front of users, collecting feedback, and
quickly refining and iterating your idea based on that feedback. It’s an indefinite loop, which
should be utilized over and over until the team is satisfied with their validated approach.
In a nutshell, rapid prototyping is a three-stage design process that consists of ideation,
prototype development, and testing. Prototypes begin with a limited number of features or
designs and progressively become more functional. Stakeholders are involved early and
often, and changes are made swiftly.
In a nutshell, rapid prototyping is a three-stage design process that consists of ideation,
prototype development, and testing. Prototypes begin with a limited number of features or
designs and progressively become more functional. Stakeholders are involved early and
often, and changes are made swiftly.
Rapid prototyping is an iterative approach to the design stage of an app or website. The
objective is to quickly improve the design and its functionality using regularly updated
prototypes and multiple short cycles. This saves time and money by solving common design
issues before product development begins, helps businesses to reach market quicker, and puts
the focus of development on the needs of the end-user.
The rapid prototyping process involves three simple steps:
Prototyping – The team creates one or more initial rapid prototypes. This is a visual
representation of the design specifications as set out in the requirements document. The
prototype may be either low-fidelity or high-fidelity and may be interactive or non-
interactive.
Feedback – The creators share the prototype with other team members, stakeholders, and
focus groups made up of the intended end-users. Everyone evaluates both the design and
usability before submitting feedback.
Improvement – The feedback is used to create a new iteration of the prototype. The design
process then cycles round to Step 2 for further feedback. This continues until there are no

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more changes or a specified cut-off is reached (either a date, a number of iterations, or a
clearly finished product).

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