MODULE – 3

PRINCIPLES OF METAL FORMING

 Metal forming is a very important manufacturing operation. It enjoys industrial
importance among various production operations due to its advantages such as cost
effectiveness, enhanced mechanical properties, flexible operations, higher productivity,
considerable material saving.
 The objects and articles that we use in our daily life are man-made, engineered parts,
which are obtained from some raw material through some manufacturing process. All
these objects are made of several small components assembled into fin ished product. The
pen that we use for writing, for example is made of several small parts, assembled. An
automobile is supposed to be an assembly of more than 15000 parts, produced through
various manufacturing operations.
 Manufacturing of finished parts and components from raw materials is one of the most
important steps in production.
 Production encompasses all types of manufacturing processes. Manufacturing refers to
the conversion of raw materials into finished products employing suitable techniques.
There are several methods of manufacturing such as metal casting, metal forming, metal
machining, metaljoining and finishing.
 Some of the modern methods of manufacturing include micro machining, nano
fabrication, ultra-precision manufacturing etc.
 In order to fulfill the requirements of the ever-increasing demands of various types of
industries, the manufacturing engineer must choose the right type of material and the
right type of equipment for manufacture so that the cost of production and the energy
consumption are minimum.
 The selection of suitable manufacturing process should also include concerns for
environmental impacts such as air pollution, waste disposal etc.
 Modern concepts such as lean manufacturing, adaptive control, agile manufacturing,
group technology etc. have considerable influence on cost reduction and quality
improvements of products.
 Computers and robots play important role in modern manufacturing techniques, today.
Modeling and simulation of the process prior to mass production helps the manufacturing
engineer fix up the best operating parameters and hence achieve the finished product to
the utmost level of quality and cost-effectiveness.

METAL FORMING – definition

 Materials are converted into finished products though different manufacturing processes.
Manufacturing processes are classified into shaping [casting], forming, joining, and
coating, dividing, machining and modifying material property.

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  Of these manufacturing processes, forming is a widely used process which finds
applications in automotive, aerospace, defense and other industries.
 Wrought forms of materials are produced through bulk or sheet forming operations. Cast
products are made through shaping – molding and casting.
 A typical automobile uses formed parts such as wheel rims, car body, valves, rolled
shapes for chassis, stamped oil pan, etc.
 In our daily life we use innumerable formed products e.g. cooking vessels, toothpaste
containers, bicycle body, chains, tube fitting, fan blades etc.
 Forming is the process of obtaining the required shape and size on the raw material by
subjecting the material to plastic deformation through the application of tensile force,
compressive force, bending or shear force or combinations of these forces.

CLASSIFICATION OF METAL FORMING PROCESS

 Based on application of load
 Bulk deformation
 Sheet metal working
 Based on working temperature
 Hot working or forming
 Cold working or forming
 Warm working or forming

Bulk Deformation Processes

 Bulk deformation refers to the use of raw materials for forming which have low
surface area to volume ratio.
 Rolling, forging, extrusion and drawing are bulk forming processes.
 In bulk deformation processing methods, the nature of force applied may be
compressive, compressive and tensile, shear or a combination of these forces.

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  Bulk forming is accomplished in forming presses with the help of a set of tool and
die.
 Examples for products produced by bulk forming are: gears, bushes, valves, engine
parts such as valves, connecting rods, hydraulic valves, etc.

Sheet metal working

 Sheet metal forming involves application of tensile or shear forces predominantly.
 Working upon sheets, plates and strips mainly constitutes sheet forming.
 Surface area to volume of the work is large.
 Bending, drawing, shearing, blanking, punching are some of the sheet metal
operations.

Cold, Hot and Warm Working of Metals

Cold Working
 Plastic deformation of metals below the recrystallization temperature is known as cold
working.
 It is generally performed at room temperature. In some cases, slightly elevated
temperatures may be used to provide increased ductility and reduced strength.
 Cold working offers several distinct advantages, and for this reason various cold-working
processes have become extremely important.
 Significant advances in recent years have extended the use of cold forming, and the trend
appears likely to continue.
 In comparison with hot working, the advantages of cold working are
 No heating is required
 Better surface finish is obtained
 Better dimensional control is achieved; therefore, no secondary machining is
generally needed.
 Products possess better reproducibility and interchangeability.
 Better strength, fatigue, and wear properties of material.
 Directional properties can be imparted.
 Contamination problems are almost negligible.
 Some disadvantages associated with cold-working processes are:
 Higher forces are required for deformation.
 Heavier and more powerful equipment is required.
 Less ductility is available.
 Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free.
 Strain hardening occurs (may require intermediate annealing).
 Undesirable residual stresses may be produced
 Cold forming processes, in general, are better suited to large-scale production of parts
because of the cost of the required equipment and tooling.

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Warm Working
 Metal deformation carried out at temperatures intermediate to hot and cold forming is
called Warm Forming.
 Compared to cold forming, warm forming offers several advantages. These include:
 Lesser loads on tooling and equipment
 Greater metal ductility
 Fewer number of annealing operation (because of less strain hardening )
 Compared to hot forming, warm forming offers the following advantages.
 Lesser amount of heat energy requirement
 Better precision of components
 Lesser scaling on parts
 Lesser decarburization of parts
 Better dimensional control
 Better surface finish
 Lesser thermal shock on tooling
 Lesser thermal fatigue to tooling, and so greater life of tooling.

Hot Working
 Plastic deformation of metal carried out at temperature above the recrystallization
temperature, is called hot working.
 Under the action of heat and force, when the atoms of metal reach a certain higher energy
level, the new crystals start forming. This is called recrystallization.
 When this happens, the old grain structure deformed by previously carried out
mechanical working no longer exist, instead new crystals which are strain -free are
formed.
 In hot working, the temperature at which the working is completed is critical since any
extra heat left in the material after working will promote grain growth, leading to poor
mechanical properties of material.
 In comparison with cold working, the advantages of hot working are
 No strain hardening
 Lesser forces are required for deformation
 Greater ductility of material is available, and therefore more deformation is possible.
 Favorable grain size is obtained leading to better mechanical properties of material
 Equipment of lesser power is needed
 No residual stresses in the material.
 Some disadvantages associated in the hot-working of metals are:
 Heat energy is needed
 Poor surface finish of material due to scaling of surface
 Poor accuracy and dimensional control of parts
 Poor reproducibility and interchangeability of parts

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  Handling and maintaining of hot metal is difficult and troublesome
 Lower life of tooling and equipment.

FORGING
Forging is a metal working process in which useful shape is obtained in solid state by
hammering or pressing metal.
It is one of the oldest metalworking arts with its origin about some thousands of years
back.
Some examples of shapes obtained by forging process: Crane hook, connecting rod of IC
Engine, spanner, gear blanks etc.

Classification of Forging Process

1. Open Die Forging
2. Closed Die Forging

OPEN DIE FORGING:

Open-die forging is where a solid workpiece is placed between two flat dies and reduced
in height by compressing it

Fig: Open Die Forging

Features of open die forging
 Repeated impact blows are given on the work
 Less dimensional accuracy
 Suitable only for simple shapes of work
 Requires more skill of the operator
 Usually used for a work before subjecting it to closed die forging (to give approximate
shape)
 Dies are simple and less expensive
 It can be analyzed much easily
 It is the simplest of all forging operations

Closed Die Forging

Work piece is deformed between two dies with impressions (cavities) of the desired final
shape on them.

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 Fig: Closed Die Forging
Features of Closed Die Forging
 Closed die forging involves two or more steps:
i) Blocking Die: Work is rough forged, close to final shape.
ii) Finishing Die: work is forged to final shape and dimensions.
 Both Blocking Die and Finishing Die are machined into the same die block.
 More number of dies are required depending on the complexity of the job.
 Two die halves close-in & work is deformed under high pressure.
 High dimensional accuracy / close control on tolerances.
 Suitable for complex shapes.
 Dies are complex and more expensive.
 Large production rates are necessary to justify high costs.

FORGING OPERATIONS:
The different forging operations are described below,
1. Upsetting: The thickness of the work reduces and length increases
2. Edging: The ends of the bar are shaped to requirement using edging dies.
3. Fullering: The cross-sectional area of the work reduces as metal flows outward, away
from centre.
4. Drawing: The cross-sectional area of the work is reduced with corresponding increase in
length using convex dies.
5. Swaging: The cross-sectional area of the bar is reduced using concave dies.
6. Piercing: The metal flows around the die cavity as a moving die pierces the metal.
7. Punching: It is a cutting operation in which a required hole is produced using a punching
die.
8. Bending: The metal is bent around a die/anvil.

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Forging Equipment
1. Forging Hammer
 The force is supplied by a falling weight of ram.
 Deformation of work piece is due to the application of the kinetic energy of the
ram.
2. Forging Press
i) Mechanical board hammer
 It is a stroke restricted machine.
 Repeatedly the board (weight) is raised by rolls and is dropped on the die.
 Rating is in terms of weight of the ram and energy delivered.
ii) Steam Hammer (Power Hammer)
 Range: 5 kN to 200 kN
 It uses steam in a piston and cylinder arrangement.
 It has greater forging capacity.
 It can produce forgings ranging from a few kgs to several tonnes.
 Preferred in closed die forging.
iii) Hydraulic Press
 It is a load restricted machine.

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  It has more of squeezing action than hammering action.
 Hence dies can be smaller and have longer life than with a hammer.

Mechanical Board Hammer Steam (Power) Hammer Hydraulic Press

Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Forging

Advantages
1. Superior mechanical properties are obtained.
2. Can produce a piece that is stronger than an equivalent cast or machined part.
3. Refinement of grain structure.
4. Scrap rates are less.
5. Forgings can be readily welded.
6. Fairly close dimensional tolerances are achieved.

Disadvantages
1. Due to high temperature, workpiece is subjected to rapid oxidation & scaling occurs
which results in poor surface finish.
2. Not suitable for intricate (complex) shapes.
3. Tooling & handling costs are high.
4. Cost associated with forging is high compared to casting.

Applications
Commonly forged components are used in following industrial areas,
1. Automotive & Truck – wheel spindles, axle beams, torsion bars, kingpins etc.,
2. Agricultural machinery & equipment
3. Valves, fittings, oil field applications
4. Hand tools & hardware – sledges, hammers, wrenches, hooks etc.,
5. Off-highway equipment / railroad
6. General industrial equipment – connecting rods, blanks, blocks, cylinders, sleeves etc.,
7. Ordnance/ ship building
8. Aerospace – brackets, shafts, landing gear cylinder, brake carriers etc.,

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Forging Defects
1. Incomplete forging penetration: Dendritic ingot structure at the interior of forging is not
broken. Actual forging takes place only at the surface.
a) Cause: Use of light rapid hammer blows
b) Remedy: To use forging press for full penetration.

2. Surface Cracking
a) Cause: Excessive working on the surface and too low temperature. High sulfur in
furnace leading to hot shortness
b) Remedy: To increase the work temperature

3. Cracking at the flash: This crack penetrates into the interior after flash is trimmed off.
a) Cause: Very thin flash
b) Remedy: Increasing flash thickness, relocating the flash to a less critical region of the
forging, hot trimming and stress relieving.

4. Cold shut (Fold): Two surfaces of metal fold against each other without welding completely
a) Cause: Sharp corner (fewer fillets), excessive chilling, high friction
b) Remedy: increase fillet radius on the die

5. Scale pockets and Underfills: They are loose scale/ lubricant residue which accumulate in
deep recesses of the die.
a) Cause: Incomplete descaling of the work
b) Remedy: Proper decaling of work prior to forging

6. Internal cracks
a) Cause: Secondary tensile stresses developed during forging
b) Remedy: Proper die design

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FORGING & CASTING:

No. Forging Casting
1 Tooling is expensive Tooling is often less expensive than forge dies
2 Complex parts are difficult to be forged Complex parts are easily obtained
3 Handling is better than casting Risk in handling
4 Less range of alloy choice Large range of alloy choices
5 Strength is high Low strength
6 Machine operation is less Machine operation is high
7 Solid metal is forced into die cavity Liquid metal is poured into a cavity
Not suitable for large parts & higher Suitable for large parts & higher thickness
8
thickness

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ROLLING
 In Rolling the workpiece is drawn by friction through regulated opening of two rotating
cylindrical rolls and reduction in the thickness is obtained.
 The two cylindrical rollers are supported on bearings and are driven by a powerful motor.
 The opening between the rolls can be adjusted as required.
 This gap is normally referred to as roll gap or regulated opening.

 The work piece is subjected to compressive forces and is deformed plastically. The cross
section decreases, and length gets elongated whereas the total volume It is the main metal
working process and offers itself to mass production.
 Close control of the final product is possible.
 Rotating rolls will squeeze the work piece inducing direct compressive stress in it.
 Friction dominates the process.
 Rolling of work piece can be carried out in hot or cold condition.
 Components produced through rolling have higher mechanical properties than cast
products.
 Slabs, Sheets, Bars, Rods, Structural components like I, U, L etc., in long lengths can be
produced easily.

Steps in Rolling Process

 The staring raw material in rolling is the ingot which is obtained by using a metal die.
 Ingot will have a length of about 1 meter and a cross section of 100 x 100mm or
250x250mm etc.
 Ingot may have any geometrical cross section.
 The details of Ingot production are:
 Prepare molten metal in a furnace.
 Pour clean well-prepared molten metal with correct temperature into a metal die
cavity and allow it to cool.
 Take out the solid metal.
 This solid metal is referred to as Ingot or Ingot casting.
 The Ingot is then passed through the rolls to get the next set of products blooms,
billets, bars, slabs, plates, sheets or Structural components.
 The same is shown in the flow chart.

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Classification (Types) of Rolling Process
Rolling Process can be classified either
1. based on the temperature of the metal during rolling or
2. based on the arrangement of the rolls and their number or
3. based on the Products rolled.

1. Based on the temperature

 Rolling can be classified as Hot Rolling or Cold Rolling.
 Hot rolling is carried out above recrystallisation temperature (RCT) and cold rolling
is carried out below RCT.
 Hot rolling is used to convert ingots to blooms and blooms to billets to slabs to plates,
billets to bars, and billets to structural shapes.
 It is used for heavy or thick sections.
 Surface finish will be poor but the mechanical properties will be uniform.
 Cold rolling is used for converting small sections plates to sheets to foils or bars to
wires.
 Good surface finish is obtained with enhanced properties.
2. Based on Roll arrangement
 The minimum number of rolls required for rolling to take place is two and the higher
end is dictated by the amount of reduction required, type of metal being rolled,
configuration of the product etc., the rolls are cylindrical shaped.
 The arrangement of rolls could be
 2 high roll mill- two rolls are used here.
 3 high roll mill- three rolls are used here.
 4 high roll mill- four rolls are used here.
 Cluster roll mill- a number of rolls are used in conjunction.
 Planetary roll mill- rolls are arrangement in the form of planetary movement.

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  Tandem roll mill- continuous arrangement of rolls are used for continuous
rolling.
 Sendizmer roll mill-similar to a cluster mill but large number of rolls are used.
 Greatest reduction in the material is obtained.
 All these arrangements are discussed below:
 The term “mill” is generally used while referring to while referring to the type of
rolling process. It signifies the station involving the arrangement of rolls contributing
for rolling and type of rolling operation carried out. The term “high” signifies that the
rolls are placed above the ground level.
 As already discussed the starting raw material is the ingot. Ingot is rolled to blooms-
billets – rods wires in the first route.
 In the second route Ingot-bloom-slab-plate-sheet-foil is obtained.
 In the third route Ingot-bloom-structural configuration like I, U, V etc. is obtained.

Two high mill

 It consists of two rolls located one above the other with their centers in vertical plane.
 A controlled opening or gap is provided between the rolls.
 This gap represents the required thickness of the product.
 The rolls are cylindrical and mounted on bearings. They are driven by motor and rotate in
opposite directions as shown.
 The rolling direction can be changed by changing the direction of rotation of the rolls.
 The center distance between the rolls (C) can be changed to change the roll gap to vary
the thickness of the product.
 This is mainly used for producing blooms and billets.

Three high mill

 The arrangement consists of three rolls located one above the other, with their centers in a
vertical plane.
 Outer rolls will be rotating in one direction and the center one will be rotating in the
opposite direction.
 Here two passes of the work is possible unlike one pass in two roll mill.
 Work piece is fed between the gap of top set of rolls and its thickness is reduced.
 The out put of this is fed into the gap between the bottom set of rolls.

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  One reduction in thickness of the work piece is obtained. Thus, rolling will take place in
both directions.
 Since the output of one is taken and fed into the second set of rolls, the work forms a loop
as shown. Hence, it is also named as looping mill.
 The mill has higher out put. Gap between roll1 and roll 2 = t1 and between roll 2 and roll
3 = t2. Where t1 > t2

Four high mill

 Here four rolls are used.
 Two smaller form the main rolls and come in contact with the work piece and cause
deformation.
 These rolls are backed up by larger diameter rolls. Thus, the mill is more rigid and can be
used for higher reductions in the work.
 Back up rolls prevent roll deflection.

Cluster Mill
 Here the main rolls are small and are backed up by two sets of rolls on each side.
 Higher rigidity and stability is imparted to the mill.
 Higher reductions are possible.
 Better deformation will take place.

Planetary Mill
 Here the large roll has very small rolls located along the circumference.

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  A number of them will be arranged on each roll of a virtually two high roll mill.
 The arrangement looks like planets on the rolls.
 Hence, the name planetary mill. In fact, the small rolls come in contact with the work
piece and the big roll act as back up roll.
 Higher reduction of the order 25:1 is possible in one pass.
 The mill provides forging action as well as rolling action at the same time.
 There will be two high mill at the beginning feeding the work piece to the planetary mill.
 At the outlet end there will be another set of two high mill to take the out coming work.
 This arrangement provides roll tension at the beginning and at the outlet.
 The mill is mainly used for converting slab to sheet or strip.

Tandem Mill
 A series of four high mills are used one after the other.
 The work piece passes through each one of them.
 Reduction in the thickness will take place at each point.
 Each one of the mill is referred to as stand. There may be as many stands as necessary.
This arrangement is referred to as “Tandem Mill”.
 Continuous reduction will take place at each stand. There will be coiler and uncoiler
which provides winding up of the work at the out let end and act as f eed roll by releasing
the work piece.
 Normally this arrangement is used for converting thick sheet to very thin sheet. Normally
a cold rolling mill.
 Coiler and uncoiler provide the necessary tension in the work piece. Very smooth and
good surface is obtained in the work piece.

Sendizmer Mill
 It is basically a cluster mill.
 It is used to produce thin sheets and foils.
 Very strong metals can be rolled very easily.
 Basically, a cold rolling mill. Stainless steels, Alloy steels etc., can be rolled easily.
 Very high reduction ratio is obtained.

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Defects in Rolled Products
 Defects in the Final Product of Mechanically worked metal may have originated from
any one or a combination of the following: The ingot used for MW may contain defects
(pores, microcracks or inclusions) which may remain as such or get aggravated during
working operation.
 Operational Parameters Localized to a particular type of MW process (not following the
proper practice).

Defects in Rolled Products

a) General b) Operational
a) General defects
The defects may arise due to
i) Surface irregularities: The ingot or the raw material may be having irregularities
due to scaling which will get trapped in the metal and remain inside the metal surface
as laps. This needs to be removed by grinding and there will be metal loss. If the
defect is deep and severe the product may get rejected.
ii) Non-metallic inclusions: The inclusions may results from oxides or nitrides or
silicates etc., especially in steels. These are present in the molten metal during the
preparation. If less in volume may cause small cracks in the metal and if more in
volume will result in severe cracks called crocodile cracks separating the product into
two halves.
iii) Internal Pores: There may be pores in the product due to the presence of gases like
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen etc., If too much gases are present leads to elongation of
the pores and the product may become weaker. Sometimes separation may take place
resulting in cracks.
iv) Barrel: Due to friction at the edges of the product barrel action takes place. Surface
in contact experience severe friction as compared to center of the work. Hence, with
heavy reduction in the work the center tends to expand laterally more than the outer
surfaces in contact with the dies and produces barreled edges.

v) Non uniform deformation: When the rolling conditions a re such that only surface
of the work piece is deformed. The cross section of the slab is deformed into the
shape as shown. The middle portion is less deformed as compared to the outer

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 surface. This may be due to variation in temperature in the metal. Surface temperature
being more than the inside temperature of the slab.
vi) Alligator Cracks: If there is any metallurgical weakness in the metal (due to the
presence of inclusions) along the centre line of the slab, fracture will occur. This
results in the separation of the layer giving rise to opening of the slab which looks
like an alligator mouth in opening position. Hence, the name.

b) Operational defects

i) Waviness (Varying thickness): Variation in the work across the width in sheet
rolling occurs because the roll gap is not perfectly parallel (a). Since width and
volume are constant and thickness is varying, the edges elongate more than the center
(b). But the sheet is a continuous body; the strains readjust to maintain continuity.
Thus the center portion is in tension and the edges are in compression (c). The result
is a wavy edge (d).

ii) Edge Cracking: The length of the center portion increases but the edges are
prevented due to frictional force. As a result, the material gets rounded off (a). The
edges are strained in tension leading to edge cracking along the width of the slab (b).
When the difference in the strains become excess i.e. under severe condition, split at
the center of the slab occurs (c).

SHEET METAL FORMING

 Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces.
 It is one of the fundamental forms used in metalworking and can be cut and bent into a
variety of different shapes.
 Countless everyday objects are constructed of the material.
 Thicknesses can vary significantly, although extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil
or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate.
 Forming can be defined as the process in which the desired size and shape of the object are
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 obtained through plastic deformation of material. The stresses induced during the process
are greater than yield strength but should be less than the fracture strength.
Press Tool Operations
 The various operations carried out by press tools have been classified and shown in below
table on the type of stresses introduced into the component.

Shearing
 Shearing is the process of cutting off of sheets using a die and punch, applying shear stress
along the thickness of the sheet. A die and punch or a pair of blades is used in shearing.
 The various shearing processes are,
 Punching: Shearing process using a die and punch where the interior portion of
the sheared sheet is to be discarded.
 Blanking: shearing process using a die and punch where the exterior portion of
the shearing operation is to be discarded.
 Perforating: punching a number of holes in a sheet.
 Parting: shearing the sheet into two or more pieces.
 Notching: removing pieces from the edges.
 Lancing: leaving a tab without removing any material.

Blanking & Punching

 It is a kind of shearing operation, carried out along a closed contour.
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  The desirable part in this operation is the metal inside the sheared contour, called blank.
 Example is making circular blanks out of sheets for subsequent deep drawing of cups.
 Punching is the operation in which the desired part is the sheet left out after making a
punch hole or contour shearing.
 Die-punch clearance is very critical for blanking and punching, as it governs the kind of
finish obtained on the final part.

Bending
 Bending of sheets and plates is widely used in forming parts such as corrugations,
flanges, etc.
 Bending is a forming operation in which a sheet metal is subjected to bending stress
thereby a flat straight sheet is made into a curved sheet.
 The sheet gets plastically deformed without change in thickness.
 Die and punch are used for bending.
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  If a v shaped die and punch are used, the bending is called v-bending.
 If the sheet is bent on the edge using a wiping die it is called edge bending.
 In this process, one end of the sheet is held like a cantilever using a pressure pad and the
other end is deformed by a punch which moves vertically down, bending the sheet.
 Usually, edge bending is done in order to obtain an angle of 900.

Drawing
 Cup drawing or deep drawing is one of the widely used sheet metal forming operations.
 Cup shaped objects, utensils, pressure vessels, gas cylinders, cans, shells, kitchen sinks
etc. are some of the products of deep drawing.
 In this process, a sheet metal called blank is placed on a die cavity, held in position usinga
holding plate or holding ring and pressed against the die cavity using a solid punch.
 The sheet metal attains the shape of the die cavity with flat bottom.
 Both die and punch should be provided with corner radius in order to avoid shearing of
the sheet.

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Spinning
 Forming deeper axi-symmetric parts from a blank against a rotating mandrel is known as
spinning.
 Rigid rollers are used as the spinning tool.
 The shaping of the circular blank over a rotating mandrel is done using rigid roller tool.
 In conventional spinning, the blank is bent around the rotating mandrel using a roller.
 Spun parts may have diameter as large as 6 m.
 Utensils are made by conventional spinning, as this process is cheaper.
 Blank diameter is larger than the diameter of finished part in conventional spinning.

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Stretch Forming
 Stretching of a sheet metal, by holding its ends or edges and bending it over a form block,
simultaneously is called stretch forming. It is a process involving tensile force.
 Rigid die is used in the process.
 Materials with good ductility alone can be stretch formed.
 Aircraft wing panels, automobile door panels, window frames are some of the parts
produced by this process.
 Tensile forces as high as 9 MN are used in forming aluminum skins for aircrafts.
 A single form block or punch is used along with gripping jaws.
 The forming is performed using hydraulically operated ram.
 First the sheet is bent around the form block.
 Then it is gripped and stretched applying large tensile force until it plastically deforms.

Embossing
 It is the operation used in making raised figures with its corresponding relief on the other
side.
 The process involves drawing and bending of the metal.
 It is generally used for providing dimples on sheets to increase their rigidity and for
decorative sheet work used for panels in houses and religious places.
 The operation is also sometimes used for making decoration items like number plates or
name plates, jewellery, etc.

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 Embossing Coining

Coining
 In this the flow of the metal occurs only at the top layers and not the entire volume.
 The pressures involved in coining are very high (1600Mpa).
 Used for making coins, medals and similar articles and for impressions on decorative
items.

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