UNIT 1 – GNSS OVERVIEW

(From “New ideas pass through three periods…” to closing remarks)

1. Opening Thought: GNSS as a “Good Idea All Along”

“New ideas pass through three periods:

1. It can’t be done.

2. It probably can be done, but it’s not worth doing.

3. I knew it was a good idea all along!”

– Arthur C. Clarke

• GNSS has now fully reached Phase 3 →

Everyone accepts “it was a good idea all along.”

• This chapter gives a big-picture overview of:

o How GNSS positioning works in principle

o What GNSS systems exist (GPS, GLONASS, etc.)

o What the architecture looks like (segments)

o Basic trilateration, applications, user equipment, and augmentation.

2. Simple Classroom Demonstration of GNSS Positioning

The book starts with a Grade 4 classroom experiment to show the idea of position determination.

The Setup (Figure 1)

• Cardboard cut-outs of three satellites are:

o Tacked to the walls and ceiling of the classroom.

• From each “satellite”, a string is stapled and hangs down.

• On the floor:

o A location is chosen and marked with a movable dot.

• The strings are pulled down so that:

o Their lower ends all meet at that dot.

• The length of each string now represents:

o The distance from the dot to each satellite.

• The position of the dot on the floor is recorded, then the dot is removed.
(Figure 1 in the book visually shows this setup.)
 What the Students Do

When the students enter the classroom:

1. They are asked to find the original marked location.

2. They pull each string down and slide them until:

o All three string ends meet at one point on the floor.

3. They mark this point again with a movable dot.

4. They compare it to the original marked position.

Result:
Their new estimate is very close to the original point.

Concept Shown:

If you know the location of three satellites and your distance from each, you can determine your position.
This is the basic idea of trilateration in 2D/3D.

Real World is More Complicated

In reality, GNSS position determination is more complex because:

• Satellites are moving constantly

• Signals are very weak by the time they reach Earth

• The atmosphere interferes with radio signal transmission

• For cost reasons:

o User equipment (receivers) is less sophisticated than satellite equipment

So GNSS must handle all these challenges in practice.

3. GNSS Segments – The Big Architecture Picture

“The more you explain it, the more I don’t understand it.” – Mark Twain

The book admits: yes, GNSS can feel confusing at first.

A more detailed explanation comes in later chapters; here we stay at overview level.

Two key figures are introduced:

• Figure 2 – GNSS segments

• Figure 3 – GNSS satellite orbits

4. GNSS Constellations (The Systems Behind GNSS)

You may know “GPS”, but the correct broader term is:
GNSS – Global Navigation Satellite System

It refers to all satellite positioning systems (constellations) operated by different countries.

List of Major Constellations

GPS – United States

• Full form: Global Positioning System

• First GNSS, launched in the late 1970s

• Operated by the U.S. Department of Defense

• Provides global coverage

GLONASS – Russia

• Operated by the Russian government

• Constellation also provides global coverage

Galileo – European Union

• A civil GNSS system

• Operated by the European GNSS Agency (GSA)

• Provides global coverage

BeiDou – China

• China’s own navigation satellite system

• Provides global coverage, with:

o Enhanced service for the China region

NavIC – India 🇮🇳

• Full form: Navigation with Indian Constellation

• Provides regional service:

o India + surrounding area

QZSS – Japan

• Full form: Quasi-Zenith Satellite System

• A regional navigation system

 • Provides service to:

o Japan and the Asia–Oceania region

More detailed information on each system is given in Chapter 3.

5. GNSS Architecture – Three Segments

“The future ain’t what it used to be.” – Yogi Berra

GNSS has changed the future by enabling accurate global positioning and timing.

GNSS is organised into three major components, called segments (Figure 2):

1. Space Segment

2. Control Segment
3. User Segment

5.1 Space Segment

• Includes all GNSS satellites:

o Orbiting at about 19,000–36,000 km

(11,800–22,400 miles) above Earth.

• Each GNSS (GPS, GLONASS, etc.) has:

o Its own constellation of satellites.

• Orbits are designed to provide:

o Required coverage (global/regional).

(Figure 3 shows orbits visually.)
Each satellite broadcasts a signal containing:

• Identity (which satellite it is)

• Precise time

• Orbit location

• Health/status

Analogy: Satellite as a Friend Leaving a Voice Message

The book gives a nice analogy:

“This is your friend [identity].

The time is 1:35 p.m. [time].
I am at the northwest corner of 1st Avenue and 2nd Street and heading towards your place [orbit].
I am OK but a bit thirsty [status].”
Later, your friend listens to this and tells you to come a slightly different way →
This is like giving you an “orbit correction”.

Similarly, GNSS:

• Monitors satellites

• Sends updated orbit & time corrections when needed

5.2 Control Segment

The control segment is a ground-based network that supervises satellites.

For GPS, it includes:

• 1 × Master Control Station

• 1 × Alternate Master Control Station

• 11 × Command & control antennas

• 16 × Monitoring sites worldwide

For every GNSS:

• The master control station:

o Adjusts satellite orbit parameters

o Adjusts onboard high-precision clocks

o Keeps the system accurate

• Monitor stations:

o Spread over wide geographic areas

o Continuously monitor satellite signals & health

o Send this information to the master control station

• Data upload stations:

o Transmit time & orbit corrections back to satellites.

5.3 User Segment

The user segment consists of all equipment that receives GNSS signals and turns them into usable
information.

Includes:
• Smartphones
• Handheld receivers (e.g., hikers, outdoor use)

• Professional survey/mapping receivers

 • Specialised high-end GNSS systems for:

o Surveying

o Machine control

o Precision applications
User equipment:

• Processes satellite signals

• Derives:

o Location (position)

o Time

• Applies this to:

o Navigation, mapping, agriculture, etc.

(Figure 7 in the book shows examples of GNSS user equipment.)

6. GNSS Signals – Basic Overview

• GNSS radio signals are complex.

• Frequency range:

o About 1.17 – 1.61 GHz (gigahertz)

o = 1.17–1.61 billion cycles per second

• Compared to other signals:

o Higher than FM radio

o Lower than a microwave oven

• By the time signals reach the ground, they are:

o Very, very weak

Details about how receivers deal with such weak, complex signals are given in Chapter 2.

7. GNSS Positioning – Concept of Trilateration

“I have never been lost, but I will admit to being confused for several weeks.” – Daniel Boone

With a GNSS receiver, you may never be truly lost, because GNSS computes your position using
trilateration.
Trilateration:
If you do not know your position,
but you know your distance from three known points,
you can determine your location.
 7.1 Example with People’s Houses – 2D Trilateration

Let’s assume:
Step 1 – Distance to Person A

• You know you are 3 km (1.9 miles) from Person A’s house.

• All you know is:

o You lie somewhere on a circle of radius 3 km, centered at A.

(Figure 4 shows this.)

Step 2 – Add Distance to Person B

• You also know you are 4 km (2.5 miles) from Person B’s house.

• Now you must lie at one of two points:

o Where the two circles (3 km from A, 4 km from B) intersect: positions x and y.

(Figure 5 shows this.)

Step 3 – Add Distance to Person C

• Now you know you are 6 km (5.6 miles) from Person C’s house.

• There is only one point where all three circles intersect:

→ This is Position X (Figure 6).

Therefore:

Knowing distances to three known points lets you fix one physical location.

7.2 Extending Trilateration to GNSS

• In GNSS:
o Houses are replaced with satellites in known orbits.

o Distances are measured using signal travel time × speed of light.

• Chapter 2 gives a full 3D extension of this idea.

But conceptually:

• GNSS finds your position by:

o Knowing where satellites are

o Measuring how far away you are from each of them

8. GNSS Applications
Originally, GNSS was mostly used for:

• Surveying

• Mapping

Now it is used widely in:

8.1 Commercial & Industrial Applications

• Agriculture

o Precision farming

o Automated tractors

• Transportation

o Fleet tracking

o Logistics

• Autonomous vehicles

• Machine control

o Construction machinery

• Marine navigation

• Other industries where:

o Continuous, precise position & time improve efficiency

8.2 Consumer Applications

GNSS is also used in:

• Vehicle navigation systems

• Mobile communication devices

• Entertainment and sports/fitness (running, cycling, etc.)

As GNSS gets:
• More accurate

• Cheaper

More and more applications will continue to emerge.

8.3 GNSS for Accurate Time

In addition to position, GNSS receivers can provide very accurate time by:

• Synchronising local clocks with the high-precision satellite clocks.

This makes GNSS essential for:

• Power grid synchronisation

• Cellular networks

• Internet timing

• Financial networks & transactions

More detailed discussion of applications comes in Chapter 9.

9. GNSS User Equipment – Antennas & Receivers

The user segment is mainly made of:

GNSS Antennas + GNSS Receivers

(Figure 7 shows an example of user equipment.)

9.1 GNSS Antennas

• Function:

o Receive radio signals from GNSS satellites

o Send signals to the receiver for processing

• Available in many:

o Shapes

o Sizes

o Performance levels
• Selection depends on application:

o Large, high-performance antenna:

▪ Suitable for base stations

o Lightweight, low-profile, aerodynamic antenna:

▪ Better for aircraft or UAV (drones)

(Figure 8 in the book shows a sampling of different GNSS antennas.)

9.2 GNSS Receivers

• Function:
o Process satellite signals recovered by the antenna

o Compute:
 ▪ Position

▪ Time

• Receivers may:

o Use signals from one or multiple GNSS constellations

• Available in many:

o Form factors & configurations

o Designed for different applications.

(Figure 9 shows a variety of GNSS receiver types.)

• More detailed discussion of GNSS equipment appears in Chapter 9.

10. GNSS Augmentation

• Standalone GNSS:

o Typically accurate to within a few metres (few yards).

• For some users (e.g., surveying, precision agriculture, aviation), this is not accurate enough.

So:

Techniques and equipment have been developed to improve accuracy and availability of GNSS position
and time.

These are called GNSS augmentation systems (like DGPS, SBAS, RTK – covered later).

• Chapter 5:

o Discusses these augmentation techniques in detail.

11. Closing Remarks for Unit 1 (GNSS Overview)

• Chapter 1 (Unit 1) has given you:

o A high-level overview of:

▪ GNSS concepts

▪ GNSS constellations

▪ System architecture (segments)

▪ Basic trilateration idea

▪ Applications

▪ User equipment
▪ Augmentation

This summary is meant to:

Prepare your mind for deeper understanding in later chapters.

Next:

• Chapter 2 gives:

o A more detailed look at basic GNSS concepts (which you already have notes for).
• Later chapters:

o Go into errors, corrections, sensors, threats, and real-world applications.

Ultra-Quick Memory Sheet for Unit 1

UNIT 1 – GNSS OVERVIEW

• GNSS is a “good idea all along” (Arthur C. Clarke)

• Simple classroom demo: strings from 3 satellites → position

• Real world: satellites move, signals weak, atmosphere + cheap receivers make it harder

GNSS CONSTELLATIONS:

GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (EU), BeiDou (China),

NavIC (India), QZSS (Japan)

GNSS ARCHITECTURE:

1) Space Segment → Satellites (19,000–36,000 km), broadcast ID, time, orbit, status

2) Control Segment → Master control, monitor & upload stations, orbit/time corrections

3) User Segment → Antennas + receivers (phones, survey gear, etc.)

GNSS SIGNALS:

• Frequencies: 1.17–1.61 GHz

• Very weak at ground

• Details in Chapter 2

GNSS POSITIONING:
• Trilateration: distance to 3 known points → one location

• Example with Person A, B, C’s houses → circles intersect at X

APPLICATIONS:

• Surveying, mapping (first)

• Now: agriculture, transport, autonomous vehicles, marine, machine control, consumer navigation, phones

• Also provides highly accurate time → power grids, telecom, internet, finance

USER EQUIPMENT:

• Antennas: size/shape depend on application (base vs aircraft/UAV)

• Receivers: different form factors, single vs multi-constellation

AUGMENTATION:

• Standalone GNSS = few metres

• Some applications need better → augmentation (detailed in Chapter 5)

Chapter 1 = Overview → Chapter 2 = Basic concepts in depth

 UNIT 2 – BASIC GNSS CONCEPTS

(From “Any sufficiently advanced technology…” to Closing remarks)

1. Big Idea of the Chapter

“Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic.” – Arthur C. Clarke

• At first, GNSS feels like magic

• But when you break it into steps, it becomes:

o Simple

o Logical
o Elegant

Aim of this chapter:

To introduce the basic working concepts of GNSS.
More advanced topics (constellations, errors, sensor fusion, threats, applications) come in later chapters.

2. The 5-Step GNSS Concept (Figure 10)

The book summarises GNSS using a 5-step pipeline:

[ STEP 1 ] SATELLITES

[ STEP 2 ] PROPAGATION
↓

[ STEP 3 ] RECEPTION

[ STEP 4 ] COMPUTATION

[ STEP 5 ] APPLICATION

What each step means:

1. STEP 1 — SATELLITES

o GNSS satellites orbit the Earth.

o Each satellite knows:

▪ Its orbit ephemerides (precise orbit parameters)

▪ The exact time

o Ground control stations adjust these ephemerides and time when needed.
 2. STEP 2 — PROPAGATION

o Satellites regularly broadcast:

▪ Ephemerides
▪ Time

▪ Status

o These radio signals travel through the atmosphere down to user equipment.

3. STEP 3 — RECEPTION

o User equipment (receiver + antenna) receives signals from multiple satellites.

o For each satellite, the receiver:

▪ Recovers the transmitted data

▪ Finds time of propagation = how long the signal took to travel from satellite →
receiver.

4. STEP 4 — COMPUTATION

o The receiver uses:

▪ Ephemerides

▪ Time of propagation

o To compute:

▪ Position
▪ Time

5. STEP 5 — APPLICATION

o The computed position and time are passed to applications like:

▪ Navigation

▪ Surveying

▪ Mapping

▪ Other GNSS-enabled systems

3. STEP 1 – SATELLITES

3.1 Constellations

• There are multiple constellations of GNSS satellites orbiting the Earth.

• Constellation = an “orderly grouping” of satellites in orbits designed to provide:

o Regional coverage or

o Global coverage
 • More detailed description of each constellation comes in Chapter 3.

3.2 Orbit Height, Speed, and Size

• GNSS satellites orbit well above the atmosphere:

o About 19,000 – 36,000 km (11,800 – 22,400 miles) above Earth.

• GPS satellites move at about 3.9 km/second .

• They are not small:

o A modern GPS Block III satellite:

▪ Mass ≈ 2,200 kg (about the weight of a pickup truck)

▪ Body size ≈ 1.8 m × 2.5 m × 3.4 m (5.9’ × 8.2’ × 11.2’)

• The figure in the book (Figure 11) shows the body of a Block III satellite to give a sense of its size.

3.3 Stable Orbits & Extremely Accurate Time

• In the relative vacuum of space, satellite paths (trajectories) are:

o Very stable

o Predictable

• GNSS satellites know:

o Their time
o Their orbit ephemerides
with extreme accuracy.

Example:
If you ask a GPS satellite for the time, it doesn’t say “8:30”.
It might say: 8:31:39.875921346

3.4 Atomic Clocks vs Quartz Watches

• Latest GPS satellites use rubidium atomic clocks:

o Accuracy ≈ ±5 parts in 10¹¹

• These are synchronised with even more accurate ground-based cesium clocks:

o A cesium clock would gain or lose only 1 second in 100,000 years

• By comparison, a typical quartz watch:

o Accuracy ≈ ±5 parts in 10⁶

o Loses about 1 second every two days

 Important remark from the book:
If every GNSS receiver needed an onboard rubidium clock, the system would be:

• Too expensive

• Too large
So GNSS instead uses a clever way to “transfer” the satellite clock accuracy to the receiver clock
(explained later in Step 4).

3.5 Why Time is So Important in GNSS

• The time a GNSS signal takes to travel from satellite → receiver is used to determine:

o Distance (range) to satellites

• Radio waves travel at the speed of light.

• Distances travelled by light:

o In 1 microsecond (10⁻⁶ s) → ~300 m (328 yards)

o In 1 nanosecond (10⁻⁹ s) → ~30 cm (1 foot)

Small time errors = large position errors

So precise time is absolutely critical.

3.6 Multiple Constellations & Benefits

• GPS was the first GNSS constellation.

• Later, GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (European Union), and BeiDou (China) became operational too.

• Access to multiple constellations gives users:

o Better accuracy

o Better redundancy (backup if one system fails)

o Better availability (more satellites visible)

• If one system fails, a multi-constellation receiver can still operate using other constellations (if it
supports them).

• Especially useful in:

o Urban areas (buildings block satellites)

o Forested areas (trees obstruct line-of-sight)

3.7 Satellite Orbits (Different Systems)

• All GNSS satellites orbit above the atmosphere, but at slightly different altitudes:

o GPS & GLONASS: ~20,000 km (12,500 miles)

 o BeiDou: ~21,500–36,000 km (13,400–22,400 miles)

o Galileo: ~23,000 km (14,300 miles)

• GNSS orbits are:

o Almost circular
o Highly stable

o Predictable

Disturbances & Corrections:

• Wind does not affect satellites at these heights.

• But orbits are slightly perturbed by:

o Gravitational effects

o Solar radiation pressure

• So:
o Ground control occasionally corrects the orbit.

o While a satellite’s orbit is being adjusted, its status is set to “out of service”, so receivers do
not use its signals.

4. Satellite Signals

“Everything should be made as simple as possible, but no simpler.” – Albert Einstein

4.1 Complexity of GNSS Signals

• GNSS satellite signals are complex.

• To describe them, we use terms like:

o Pseudorandom

o Correlation

o Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

The book explains these concepts using GPS signals as an example.

4.2 GPS Design Background

• GPS was originally designed as a positioning system for the U.S. Department of Defense.
• For accurate military positioning, the system had to be:

o Secure
o Resistant to jamming & interference

• Military and civilian components of GPS are separate, but:

 o Some military technologies influenced the civilian system.

• GPS reached full operational capability in December 1993.

• Since then, it has been available to civilian users with different needs for:

o Availability
o Accuracy

o Cost

4.3 GPS Frequency Plan (Figure 12) & L-Band

• The book shows the GPS frequency plan with three main frequencies:

L1 → 1575.42 MHz

L2 → 1227.60 MHz

L5 → 1176.45 MHz
• These lie in the L-Band: a part of the radio spectrum between 1 and 2 GHz.

Why L-Band was chosen:

• Easier antenna design

• Ionospheric delay is more noticeable at lower frequencies (which helps in modelling and
correcting it).

• Speed of light in a medium is slightly frequency-dependent; L-band works well for GNSS.

• The coding scheme needs high bandwidth, which L-band provides.

• L-band was chosen to minimise weather effects on GPS signals.

4.4 CDMA & PRN Codes

• All GPS satellites transmit on the same frequencies (e.g., L1), so how do we distinguish them?

Through CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access).

• Each satellite uses a unique pseudo-random noise (PRN) code.

o “Pseudorandom” means:

▪ It looks random

▪ But actually, repeats after some time.

• A receiver knows the PRN code for each satellite.

• It correlates its internally generated PRN with the incoming signal:
o This allows it to:

▪ Lock onto a specific satellite

 ▪ Recover its data, even though the signals are very weak.

Analogy from the book

• Imagine a noisy room with many people talking in different languages.

• You can still understand one person because:

o You know their language.

• If you know multiple languages, you can follow multiple people.

• CDMA is similar: the “language” = PRN code.

4.5 Hedy Lamarr & Spread Spectrum

• The book mentions Hedy Lamarr:

o Austrian-born American actress and scientist

• She co-invented an early form of spread-spectrum communication.

• She and George Antheil were granted U.S. Patent 2,292,387 on 11 August 1942.

• Her ideas became a foundation for modern spread-spectrum technologies, including those used in
GNSS.

4.6 L1 Signal Contents: Codes & Navigation Message

On L1 frequency, GPS transmits:

1. Navigation Message

2. C/A Code (Coarse/Acquisition) – public (civilian)

3. P(Y) Code (Precision code) – encrypted (military)

Navigation Message (Low Bit Rate) includes:

• GPS date and time

• Satellite status and health

o If the satellite is having a problem or its orbit is being adjusted, it may broadcast an “out of
service” message.

• Satellite ephemeris data

o Allows the receiver to calculate the satellite’s position at transmission time.

• Almanac data

o Coarse orbit and status information for all GPS satellites.

o On start-up, a receiver reads the almanac to know:

▪ Which satellites are available to track.

P(Y) Code (Military):

• Used for military purposes.

• Provides better interference rejection than the C/A code.

• L2 carries the P(Y) code, and newer satellites also transmit a civilian code (L2C) on L2.
• Even though P(Y) is encrypted, clever techniques allow use of the L2 signal for advanced receivers
without decoding the P(Y) code.

4.7 Why the GPS Signal Scheme is So Useful

The GPS signal design, although complex, was chosen because:

• Receivers can:

o Recover very weak signals

o Use small antennas

o Keep cost low

• multi-frequency signals:

o Allow ionospheric compensation (because ionospheric delay varies with frequency)

• The system is resistant to jamming and interference

• Security:

o Military-only signals are not accessible to civilians

Other GNSS systems are conceptually similar to GPS, but their details differ (explained in Chapter 3).

4.8 Satellite Errors, Lifetimes & Corrections

Satellite Errors:

• Two main satellite-related errors:

o Clock errors

o Ephemeris (orbit) errors

• These are very small, but:

o Remember: in 1 nanosecond, light travels ~30 cm

o Small time/ephemeris errors → noticeable position errors

Satellite Lifetimes:
• GNSS satellites do not last forever.

• They may be:

o Replaced by newer models (with better timekeeping or new signals)

 o Fail and, if unrecoverable, be permanently removed from service

Satellite Corrections:

• Earth stations continuously:

o Monitor satellites
o Adjust their:

▪ Time

▪ Orbit parameters

• If a satellite’s orbit drifts outside acceptable limits:

o It may be set to “out of service”

o Its orbit is corrected using small rocket boosters

This completes STEP 1 – SATELLITES in the 5-step model.

5. STEP 2 – PROPAGATION

After leaving the satellite:

Satellite → Near vacuum of space → Atmosphere layers → Receiver

(Figure 16 illustrates this in the book.)

5.1 Straight Line vs Bent Path

• To compute accurate position & time, we need the length of the direct path from satellite →
receiver.

• But in reality:
o Radio waves do not travel in a perfectly straight line through the atmosphere.

• Analogy:

o A straw appears bent in a glass of water.

• Similarly, GNSS signals are bent (refracted) as they pass through the atmosphere.

• This bending:

o Increases travel time

o Changes the apparent distance

Because the computed range includes these errors and is not exactly equal to the true distance, it is called a:

Pseudorange

5.2 Ionosphere

• The ionosphere is the atmospheric layer:

 o ~50–1,000 km (31–621 miles) above Earth.

• Ultraviolet rays from the Sun:

o Ionise gas molecules, releasing free electrons.

• These free electrons affect:

o Electromagnetic wave propagation, including GNSS signals.

• Ionospheric delay is:

o Frequency-dependent

By using two frequencies (e.g., L1 and L2), the receiver can:

• Compare propagation times at both frequencies

• Solve for and remove much of the ionospheric delay.

5.3 Troposphere

• The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere.

• Its thickness varies:

o Mid-latitudes: around 17 km (10.5 miles)

o Near equator: up to 20 km (12.4 miles)

o Thinner towards poles

• Tropospheric delay depends on:

o Temperature

o Pressure

o Relative humidity

Important difference:

• L1 and L2 are equally delayed by tropospheric conditions.

• So, unlike the ionosphere:

o Tropospheric delay cannot be removed simply using dual-frequency.

• But:

o It can be modelled to predict and compensate for much of the delay.

5.4 Multipath Propagation

• On the way to the receiver, some signal energy is reflected from:

o Surfaces like buildings, ground, water

• This is called multipath propagation.

Effects:

• Reflected signals arrive later than the direct signal.

• If strong enough, they combine with the desired signal.

• This causes the measured range to be too large.

Modern receivers use sophisticated techniques to:

• Track the direct signal

• Ignore later-arriving multipath signals

Originally:

• GPS errors were dominated by:

o Ionospheric and tropospheric delays.

Now:

• More attention is given to multipath as overall performance improves.

6. STEP 3 – RECEPTION

6.1 Number of Satellites Required

• Receivers need at least four satellites to obtain a position.

o The reason why is explained under Step 4 (Computation).

• Using more satellites:

o Generally improves the position solution.

• But:
o The ability to use many satellites depends on the receiver’s computational power.

• Most user equipment today can:

o Track multiple satellites

o From multiple constellations

6.2 Line of Sight Requirement

To determine a position & time:

• The receiver must have a line of sight between:

o Its antenna
o And at least four satellites

6.3 Using Pseudorandom Codes to Find Propagation Time (Figure 18)

• GNSS signals are modulated by a pseudorandom code:

 o A known sequence of 0s and 1s.

• The receiver knows:

o The pseudorandom code pattern for each satellite.

• It determines:
o The received time of that code.

• The navigation message also contains:

o The transmission time for that signal.

So, for each satellite:

Time of Propagation = Time Received (t₂) – Time Transmitted (t₁)

From this, the receiver computes the signal travel time, which it uses later to compute distance.

6.4 Importance of Antenna Selection

The book emphasises:

The antenna is critical to GNSS performance.

An antenna acts as:

• A spatial filter (selects signals from certain directions)

• A frequency filter (selects signals from certain frequencies)

So, the antenna must:

• Match the constellations & signals supported by the receiver

• Meet size, weight, environmental, and mechanical requirements
Six key antenna factors:

Constellation and Signals

• Different constellations use different:

o Frequencies
o Bandwidths

• The antenna must:

o Cover all frequencies and bandwidths needed by the receiver.

Antenna Gain

• Gain = measure of how well an antenna can focus RF energy in a particular direction.

• A minimum gain is required to:

 o Achieve enough carrier-to-noise ratio (C/No) to reliably track satellites.

• Higher gain:

o Improves overall tracking ability of the system.

Element Gain

• Element gain tells how efficiently the actual antenna element receives signals.

• Even if you increase amplifier gain later, a poor element gain:

o Degrades signal-to-noise ratio (SNR / C/No).

• You are only as good as the weakest link in the chain.

Antenna Beamwidth & Gain Roll-Off

• Beamwidth: how wide the antenna’s main lobe of sensitivity is.

• Gain roll-off = how much gain changes between:

o Zenith (directly overhead)

o Horizon

Satellites:

• Rise from the horizon → pass overhead → set at horizon.

So gain vs elevation is important.

• Satellites near the horizon:

o Experience more multipath
o More atmospheric error

• Antenna design affects how well it handles these low-elevation signals.

Phase Centre Stability

• Phase centre = effective reference point in the antenna where signals are “collected”.

• When the receiver reports position:

o It is reporting the location of the antenna’s phase centre.

• The electrical phase centre changes slightly:

o With satellite position

o By a few millimetres

• Two important terms:

o PCO (Phase Centre Offset):

 ▪ Difference between mechanical reference point (ARP) and phase centre.

▪ Frequency-dependent (offset may differ for each frequency).

o PCV (Phase Centre Variation):

▪ Variation of phase centre with satellite elevation angle.

Effect on accuracy:

• For low-precision (≤1 m) uses:

o These variations are small enough to ignore.

• For high-precision RTK (1–4 cm accuracy):

o A few mm of phase centre error can cause 10–15% error in reported position.

• Therefore:

o Geodetic-grade antennas are used in RTK surveying because they have superior PCO/PCV
performance.

Application

The antenna must match the application’s needs, e.g.:

• Aviation antennas:

o Must be TSO/FAA certified

o Must withstand extreme temperatures and vibration

• Survey rover antennas:

o Must survive rough handling (including pole drops)

• Different use-cases require different:

o Mechanical strength

o Environmental resistance

o Certification level

That concludes STEP 3 – RECEPTION.

7. STEP 4 – COMPUTATION

This step explains how the receiver converts ranges into position & time, and why 4 satellites are needed.

7.1 Basic Idea of Trilateration

If we knew:
• Exact positions of three satellites

• Exact range (distance) to each

Then:

• We could geometrically determine our location.

But:

• In reality GNSS uses four satellites.

This step explains why.

7.2 Computing Propagation Time & Distance

For each satellite, the receiver calculates:

Propagation time = (Time signal reached receiver) – (Time signal left satellite)

Distance (range) = Propagation time × Speed of light

So, for each satellite, the receiver knows:

• Where the satellite was at transmission time (from ephemerides)

• The distance from itself to the satellite at that moment

Using these ranges to several satellites, it applies trilateration.

7.3 2D Trilateration Explanation (Figures 20 & 21)

To simplify, the book explains trilateration in 2D:

1. Range to Satellite A

o Known satellite position → receiver is somewhere on a circle centered at Satellite A:

▪ Radius = range to A
o (In 3D, this would be a sphere instead of a circle.)

2. Range to Satellite B

o Now, receiver lies on intersection of two circles (A & B).

o There are two possible positions: Position 1 and Position 2.

3. Which one is real?

o Usually, one solution is impossible:

▪ For example, it might lie in space or inside the Earth.

o This leaves the physically realistic position.

In theory, in 3D, three ideal ranges should be enough.

In reality, we need four ranges because of receiver clock error.
7.4 Receiver Clock Error & Fourth Satellite (Figures 22–24)

• Satellite clocks are atomic and extremely accurate.

• Receiver clocks are usually quartz-based, with accuracy ≈ 5 parts per million.

If we multiply this by the speed of light, we get ~±1,500 m range error.

So:

• Ranges computed using the receiver’s wrong time are slightly off.

• This makes the intersection of ranges incorrect (Figure 22).

• When we add a 3rd satellite:

o Its circle/sphere may not intersect the computed position properly (Figure 23).

The Clever GNSS Trick

• The receiver knows that the disagreement is due to its clock error.

• So it adjusts its internal clock:

o Advances or delays the receiver time

o Until all three pseudoranges intersect at a single point (Figure 24).

• This process:

o “Transfers” the high accuracy of satellite clocks to the receiver clock.

• Result:

o Receiver now has:

▪ Accurate time

▪ Accurate position
In 2D, this can be done with 3 satellites.
In full 3D, we need 4 satellites:

3 satellites → 3D geometry
• 1 more → solve the clock bias

That is why line-of-sight to at least 4 satellites is required.

8. GNSS Error Sources (Overview)

• GNSS position is based on data from satellites, but:

o There are many error sources (ranges, clocks, atmosphere, multipath, geometry, etc.)
• If these errors are not corrected, position becomes inaccurate.
• The usefulness of high precision:

o Depends on how trustworthy the measurements are.

The book says:

• Chapter 4 → Key GNSS error sources

• Chapter 5 → How errors are resolved & how they affect accuracy and performance

• Chapter 9 → Equipment & infrastructure for generating and receiving corrections

9. Dilution of Precision (DOP)

DOP describes how satellite geometry affects GNSS accuracy.

9.1 Poor Geometry (Figure 25)

• If satellites are clustered in one area of the sky:

o Their range intersections stretch over a large region.

o Inaccuracies in range measurements → even larger position errors.

o This is high DOP → poor geometry.

9.2 Improved Geometry (Figure 26)

• Adding a satellite that is angularly separated from the cluster:

o Tightens the intersection region.

o Improves position precision → lower DOP.

9.3 Meaning of DOP

• DOP is a numerical representation of satellite geometry.

• It depends on:

o Positions of visible satellites

o Approximate receiver location

Basic relation:

Inaccuracy of computed position = DOP × Inaccuracy of range measurement

Implications:

• High DOP → much larger position error than range error

• Low DOP → good geometry, better final position

9.4 General Rules about DOP

• A DOP > 6:

o Usually unacceptable for DGPS and RTK operations.

• DOP:

o Varies with time of day

o Depends on geographic location

 • DOP can be computed without measuring ranges:

o Only satellite positions + approximate receiver location are needed.

• Adding more satellites:

o Generally decreases DOP (improves geometry).

9.5 Types of DOP

• HDOP – Horizontal DOP (latitude & longitude)

• VDOP – Vertical DOP (height)

• PDOP – Position DOP (3D)

They are mathematically related.

Examples:

• When satellites are low in the sky:

o HDOP might be good (good lateral spread)

o VDOP might be poor (bad height accuracy)

• At high latitudes (e.g., Canada):

o Satellites appear lower in the sky

o Achieving good VDOP can be difficult.

Real-world challenges:

• Applications in:

o Urban environments
o Deep open-pit mines
o Where satellites are low or clustered
→ Can suffer from poor DOP and reduced accuracy.

10. STEP 5 – APPLICATION

After all errors are considered and corrected:

• The receiver determines:

o Position

o Time
• It passes these to the end-user application.

The GNSS market is:

• Ubiquitous and multi-billion-dollar

• Applications range from:

 o Simple handheld metre-level navigation

o To robust centimetre-level solutions for:

▪ Surveying

▪ Military
▪ Autonomous systems

10.1 Increasing Demands and Sensor Fusion

• Users are demanding GNSS in:

o More challenging environments (urban canyons, indoors, jamming-prone areas)

• To enhance performance, GNSS is integrated with:

o Other sensors such as inertial navigation systems (INS)

• Chapter 6 discusses:

o These additional sensors and sensor fusion

10.2 GNSS-Denied Scenarios

• As GNSS usage increases, so do:

o Risks of jamming

o Risks of spoofing

o Other intentional/unintentional interference

• These are called:

“GNSS denied” scenarios

• Chapter 7 explains:
o Causes

o Mitigation techniques

10.3 Future Chapters (Applications)

• Chapter 9 presents:

o Exciting real-world GNSS applications

o How simple position/time outputs are used in sophisticated ways

11. Closing Remarks of the Chapter

• The book itself admits:

“This has been a tough chapter”

• But if you’ve understood this, you now have:

o A solid foundation of how GNSS fundamentally works.

Next chapters:

• Chapter 3 → More details on GNSS constellations

• Chapters 4–8 → Advanced concepts:

o Errors
o Corrections

o Sensor fusion

o Threats

o Autonomy

• Chapter 9 → Equipment & real-world applications

Ultra-Quick Memory Flowchart for Unit 2

GNSS BASIC CONCEPTS (Unit 2)

→ 5-Step Model:

1. Satellites

2. Propagation

3. Reception

4. Computation
5. Application

→ Satellites:

• Constellations

• Orbits & altitudes

• Atomic clocks (Rubidium, Cesium)

• Time importance (microsecond/nanosecond)

• Multi-constellation benefits

• Signal design (L-band, CDMA, PRN, Nav message)

• Satellite errors, lifetimes, corrections

→ Propagation:

• Signal path through space + atmosphere

• Bending, pseudorange
 • Ionosphere (dual-frequency correction)

• Troposphere (modelled)

• Multipath

→ Reception:

• Need at least 4 satellites

• Line of sight

• Pseudorandom codes → propagation time

• Antenna selection & 6 key factors

→ Computation:

• Propagation time → distance

• Trilateration (2D explanation)

• Receiver clock error

• 4th satellite & clock bias correction

• DOP (HDOP, VDOP, PDOP)

→ Application:

• Passes position & time to systems

• Handheld to RTK-level
• Sensor fusion with INS

• GNSS-denied threats

• Pointer to later chapters

 UNIT 3 – GNSS CONSTELLATIONS

1. Opening Thought: Why “Space Programs” Matter

“The dinosaurs became extinct because they didn’t have a space program.”
– Larry Niven
• The idea is:
If dinosaurs had a space program, they might have:

o Detected the asteroid

o Intercepted or deflected it

o Avoided extinction

• Unlike dinosaurs, many countries today do have space programs, including:

o Launching and operating their own GNSS constellations (national or regional).

• This chapter gives an overview of these GNSS systems.

(Figure 27 in the book shows the launch of a Galileo satellite.)

Big Picture of GNSS Constellations

The chapter then goes constellation by constellation:

• GPS – United States

• GLONASS – Russia

• BeiDou – China
• Galileo – European Union

• NavIC – India

• QZSS – Japan

• Plus: a signal summary chart at the end (Figure 37).

We’ll go in the same order and keep every detail.

2. GPS (Global Positioning System) – United States

Also officially called NAVSTAR.

2.1 History

• First GNSS system.

• GPS satellites first launched in the late 1970s and early 1980s for the U.S. Department of Defense.

• Several generations (“Blocks”) of satellites have been launched since.

 • Initially:

o Military-only use

• In 1983, a decision was made to extend GPS to civilian use.

• A GPS satellite is shown in Figure 28 (Block IIR-M artist’s rendition).

2.2 Space Segment (GPS Constellation)

The GPS space segment is summarised in Table 1:

Parameter Value

Satellites 31

Orbital planes 6

Orbit inclination 55°

Orbit radius 20,200 km (12,552 miles)

• Orbit period of each satellite ≈ 12 hours.

• This gives a receiver, under open-sky conditions, typically:

o At least 6 satellites in view, often more.

• Figure 29 in the book shows a GPS satellite orbit.

Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts signals containing:

• Satellite ephemeris (precise orbit data)

• Ranging signals

• Satellite ID

• Clock data

• Almanac data

Satellites are identified by:

• Space Vehicle Number (SVN), or

• Pseudorandom Noise (PRN) code

2.3 GPS Signals (Frequencies & Characteristics)

Table 2 describes the main GPS signals:

 Designation Frequency Description

L1 1575.42 Modulated by C/A code (coarse/acquisition) for all users and P-code
MHz (precision) encrypted for military/authorised users. Starting with Block III,
also carries L1C (new civilian code).

L2 1227.60 Modulated by P-code and, starting with Block IIR-M, also by L2C
MHz (civilian). L2C broadcasts civil navigation (CNAV) messages.

L5 1176.45 Available with Block IIF satellites and later. Broadcasts CNAV messages.
MHz

Signals are based on CDMA technology, as explained in Chapter 2.

2.4 GPS Control Segment

Shown in Figure 30, and summarised as:

• Master Control Station (Schriever AFB)

• Alternate Master Control Station (Vandenberg AFB)

• Air Force monitor stations:

o Schriever AFB, Cape Canaveral, Hawaii, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Kwajalein

• AFSCN (Air Force Satellite Control Network) remote tracking stations:

o Schriever AFB, Vandenberg AFB, Hawaii, New Hampshire

• NGA monitor stations (National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency):

o Greenland, UK, Diego Garcia, Guam, USNO Washington, Alaska, UK, Ecuador, Uruguay,
South Africa, Bahrain, South Korea, Australia, New Zealand

• Ground antennas:

o At Cape Canaveral, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Kwajalein

How it works:

1. 16 monitor stations worldwide (6 Air Force, 10 NGA) track satellites using their broadcast signals
(ephemeris, ranging, ID, clock, almanac).

2. These data are sent to the Master Control Station, where:

o Ephemerides are recomputed

o Timing corrections are derived

3. Updated ephemerides + timing corrections are uploaded back to satellites via data upload stations.

4. Ground antennas, co-located with monitor stations, are used to communicate with and control the
satellites.
5. AFSCN remote tracking stations provide additional information for improved telemetry, tracking,
and control.
2.5 GPS Modernisation

• GPS reached Full Operational Capability (FOC) in 1995.

• In 2000, a project was launched to modernise both space and ground segments.

Space Segment Modernisation Includes:

• New signals

• Improved atomic clock accuracy

• Stronger, more reliable satellite signals

Control Segment Modernisation Includes:

• Better ionospheric and tropospheric modelling

• Improved in-orbit accuracy

• Additional monitoring stations

User Equipment:
• Evolved to take advantage of the new space + control capabilities.

2.5.1 L2C

• Transmitted by modernised satellites (Block IIR-M and later).

• New civilian signal on L2.

• Benefits:

o Easier for user segment to track than L2 P(Y)

o Improved navigation accuracy
o Ability to directly measure and remove ionospheric delay using civilian L1 + L2 together

• As of 2022:

o Available from 24 satellites

o Expected to be on all satellites by 2026

2.5.2 L5
• Third civilian frequency: L5 (1176.45 MHz).

• Transmitted by Block IIF and later satellites.

• Benefits:

o Supports safety-of-life applications, e.g. civil aviation

o Improves:

▪ Ionospheric correction
 ▪ Signal redundancy

▪ Signal accuracy

▪ Interference rejection

• As of 2021:
o Available from 16 satellites

o Expected on all satellites by 2030

2.5.3 L1C

• Fourth civilian signal on L1, available from GPS Block III satellites.

• Designed for international interoperability:

o European Galileo

o Japanese QZSS
o Indian NavIC

o Chinese BeiDou
plan to broadcast L1C-compatible signals.

• Features:

o New modulation scheme → better reception in cities and other hard environments.

• Status:

o Available from 5 satellites (as of 2022)

o Expected on all satellites by 2034

2.5.4 Other Modernisation Elements

• New military signals are also part of GPS modernisation.

3. GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System) – Russia

(Figure 31 shows a GLONASS-M satellite being prepared for launch.)

3.1 History

• Developed by the Soviet Union in the 1970s as an experimental military communications system.
• Later, the USSR realised it had commercial applications:

o Weather broadcast
o Communications

o Navigation
 o Reconnaissance

• First GLONASS satellite launched in 1982.

• System declared fully operational in 1993.

• After a period of performance decline, Russia recommitted to:

o At least 18 active satellites

• Currently:

o 24 satellites in full deployment.

• GLONASS satellites have evolved; the latest generation is GLONASS-M (shown in Figure 31).

3.2 GLONASS Space Segment

Summarised in Table 3:

Parameter Value

Satellites 24 + 3 spares

Orbital planes 3

Satellites/plane 8 per plane

Orbit inclination 64.8°

Orbit radius 19,140 km (11,893 miles) – about 1,060 km lower than GPS

• Constellation geometry repeats about every 8 days.

• Orbit period per satellite ≈ 8/17 of a sidereal day.

o After 8 sidereal days, satellites complete exactly 17 orbits.

• A sidereal day:

o Time taken for one complete Earth rotation relative to a star

o About 4 minutes shorter than a mean solar day.

• Each orbital plane:

o 8 equally spaced satellites

o One satellite will be in the same sky position at the same sidereal time each day.

GLONASS satellite signal includes:

• Position, velocity & acceleration info

• Satellite health information

• Offset of GLONASS time from UTC(SU) (Russian UTC)

• Almanac of all GLONASS satellites

3.3 GLONASS Control Segment

• Consists of:

o A System Control Centre

o A network of command tracking stations across Russia

• Functions (similar to GPS control segment):

o Monitor satellite health

o Determine ephemeris corrections

o Determine clock offsets relative to:

▪ GLONASS time

▪ UTC

o Upload corrections to satellites twice a day

3.4 GLONASS Signals

Described in Table 4:

Designation Frequency Range Description

L1 1598.0625–1609.3125 Modulated by HP (High Precision) and SP (Standard

MHz Precision) signals.

L2 1242.9375–1251.6875 Also modulated by HP and SP. The SP code is identical to L1

MHz SP.

L3OC 1202.025 MHz New civilian signal based on CDMA.

Key differences vs GPS:

• Each GLONASS satellite transmits on a slightly different L1 and L2 frequency.

• All satellites use the same code but different frequencies.

• This is called FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access).

• GPS and most other GNSS use CDMA instead.

Other properties:

• GLONASS signals have the same polarisation and comparable power as GPS signals.

• System uses:

o 24 satellites

o 14 frequencies, with antipodal satellites sharing frequencies.

Antipodal satellites:

• In the same orbital plane, separated by 180°.

• They can share the same frequency, because:

 o They are never both visible at the same time from one point on Earth.

• Figure 33 illustrates antipodal satellites.

3.5 GLONASS Modernisation (GLONASS-K)

As GLONASS-M satellites reach end of life, they are replaced by GLONASS-K versions.

L3OC (GLONASS-K1)

• First block GLONASS-K1 introduces L3OC:

o Civilian signal at 1202.025 MHz, based on CDMA

o Easier interoperability with other GNSS constellations

• Available from 47 satellites as of 2022 (as written in the book).

L1OC & L2OC (GLONASS-K2)

• Second block GLONASS-K2 adds:

o L1OC and L2OC → two more CDMA-based signals

• Existing FDMA L1 & L2 signals continue for legacy receivers.

L5OCM (GLONASS-KM)

• Third block GLONASS-KM will add:

o New CDMA L5 signal (L5OCM)

o New signals at L1 and L3: L1OCM, L3OCM

• These will use same frequencies as other GNSS to simplify interoperability.

4. BeiDou Navigation Satellite System – China

• Chinese GNSS is called BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS).

• “BeiDou” is the Chinese name for the Big Dipper constellation (Figure 34).

4.1 Deployment Phases

Phase 2 – BDS-2 (Regional, Asia-Pacific)

• Became operational in December 2012.

• Provided regional coverage in the Asia–Pacific region.

• Space segment initially had:

o 5 GEO (Geostationary Earth Orbit) satellites

o 5 IGSO (Inclined Geosynchronous Orbit) satellites

o 4 MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) satellites

Phase 3 – BDS-3 (Global)

 • Fully operational in 2020.

• Now provides global coverage, with enhanced regional capability.

• As of 2021:

o Space segment has 45 satellites (Tables 5 & 6).

BDS-2 Constellation (Table 5):

Satellites Orbit Type Orbit Inclination Orbit Radius

2 GEO GEO – 35,787 km (22,237 miles)

7 IGSO IGSO 55° 35,787 km (22,237 miles)

3 MEO MEO 55° 21,528 km (13,377 miles)

BDS-3 Constellation (Table 6):

Satellites Orbit Type Orbital Planes Orbit Inclination Orbit Radius

2 GEO GEO – – 35,787 km (22,237 miles)

4 IGSO IGSO – 55° 35,787 km (22,237 miles)

26 MEO MEO 3 55° 21,528 km (13,377 miles)

4.2 GEO / Geosynchronous Note

The book explains:

• A geosynchronous orbit:

o Has an orbital period equal to Earth’s sidereal rotation.

o A satellite returns to the same place in the sky at the same time each day.

• A geostationary orbit:

o A special case of geosynchronous:

▪ Circular

▪ Zero inclination (above equator)

o Satellite appears fixed in one spot over Earth’s surface.

4.3 BeiDou Signals

BDS-2 Signals (Table 7):

Designation Frequency Description

B1I 1561.098 MHz Public and restricted service signals

B2I 1207.140 MHz Public and restricted service signals

B3I 1268.520 MHz Public and restricted service signals

BDS-3 Signals (Table 8):

 Designation Frequency Description

B1I 1561.098 Public and restricted service signals

MHz

B1C 1575.42 MHz Public service; GEO satellites will broadcast BDSBAS corrections on
B1C.

B2a 1176.45 MHz Public service; GEO satellites also broadcast BDSBAS corrections on
B2a.

B2b 1207.140 Short-message communication, international search and rescue, and PPP
MHz service.

B3I 1268.520 Public and restricted service signals

MHz

BeiDou signals are CDMA-based and interoperable with other GNSS.

5. Galileo – European Union

“Measure what is measurable, and make measurable what is not so.” – Galileo Galilei

• In May 1999, a mountaineering expedition carried a GPS receiver to the top of Mount Everest to
measure its elevation accurately at 8,850 m (29,035 ft).

• The authors note Galileo (the scientist) would probably have appreciated such measurement
capability.

5.1 System Overview

• Galileo is Europe’s GNSS.

• Provides:
o Highly accurate

o Guaranteed global positioning service

• Is under civilian control.

• Since 2004, the U.S. and EU have cooperated to ensure:

o Compatibility and

o Interoperability between GPS and Galileo.

Key features:
• Guarantees service availability, except in extreme circumstances.

• Warns users within seconds if a satellite fails.

• Suitable for safety-critical applications:

o Air transportation

o Ground transportation
5.2 Development & Validation

• First experimental satellite (Galileo System Test Bed – GSTB):

o Launched in December 2005.

• Second GSTB satellite:

o Launched in April 2008.

• Purpose:

o To characterise critical technologies and support development.

• Four in-orbit validation satellites:

o Launched in 2011 and 2012 to validate:

▪ Space segment

▪ Ground segment
(Figure 36 shows a Galileo satellite in orbit.)

5.3 Galileo Constellation (Space Segment)

Summarised in Table 9:

Parameter Value

Satellites 24 operational + 3 active spares

Orbital planes 3

Orbit inclination 56°

Orbit radius 23,222 km (14,430 miles)

• Navigation signals provide coverage at all latitudes.

• Large number of satellites + 3 spares:

o Loss of one satellite has no noticeable effect on users.

5.4 Ground Segment & Time Control

• Two Galileo Control Centres (GCC) in Europe.

• A global network of 30 Galileo Sensor Stations (GSS):

o Sends data to the GCCs via a redundant communications network.

• GCCs:

o Use sensor data to compute integrity information

o Synchronise satellite time with ground clocks.

 • Uplink stations:

o Communicate with satellites and upload data.

5.5 Search and Rescue (SAR) Service

• Galileo includes a Search and Rescue function based on Cospas-Sarsat (an international SAR
satellite system).

• Each Galileo satellite has a transponder that:

o Relays distress signals to a Rescue Coordination Centre (RCC).

o RCC then organises the rescue operation.

• At the same time:

o A signal is sent back to the user, confirming:

▪ Their distress signal was received

▪ Help is on the way

• This user feedback is a major upgrade over older systems, which did not notify the user.

5.6 Galileo Signals (Table 10)

Designation Frequency Description

E1 A 1575.42 MHz Public Regulated Service (PRS) signal.

E1 B 1575.42 MHz Safety-of-life & Open Service (data).

E1 C 1575.42 MHz Safety-of-life & Open Service (dataless).

E5a I 1176.45 MHz Open Service (data).

E5a Q 1176.45 MHz Open Service (dataless).

E5b I 1207.14 MHz Safety-of-life & Open Service (data).

E5b Q 1207.14 MHz Safety-of-life & Open Service (dataless).

AltBOC 1191.795 MHz Combined E5a/E5b wideband signal.

E6 A 1278.75 MHz Public Regulated Service signal.

E6 B 1278.75 MHz High Accuracy Service (HAS) data signal.

E6 C 1278.75 MHz Commercial Service (dataless) signal.

5.7 Galileo Services (Table 11)

Galileo offers five main services:

1. Free Open Service (OS)

 o Provides positioning, navigation & precise timing.

o Free to anyone with a Galileo-capable receiver.

o No authorisation needed.

2. Commercial Service (CS)

o Used by service providers to offer value-added services (for a fee).

o High data throughput.

o Accurate, authenticated data.

3. Safety-of-Life Service (SOL)

o Builds on OS by adding:

▪ Timely warnings when accuracy margins are not met.

o Offers a service guarantee.

o Used for critical safety applications.

4. Public Regulated Service (PRS)

o Highly encrypted, restricted-access.

o For government-authorised users:

▪ Police

▪ Military

▪ Emergency services

o Requires high availability and robustness.

5. High Accuracy Service (HAS)
o PPP-type service (Precise Point Positioning).

o Provides:

▪ Orbit corrections

▪ Clock corrections

▪ Between-signal biases (code + phase)

▪ Atmospheric corrections
o Includes corrections for:

▪ All Galileo signals

▪ GPS L1, L2C, and L5

o Performance target:

▪ 20 cm (8 in) horizontal error, 95%, within 300 seconds, worldwide, free of charge.

o Broadcast on E6.
 o Timelines (as in text):

▪ SIS testing in 2021

▪ Initial service in 2022

▪ Full service in 2024

Additionally, OSNMA (Open Service Navigation Message Authentication):

• Allows users to authenticate navigation data.

• Tested since 2021.

• Expected to be in service in 2023.

6. NavIC – India & QZSS – Japan

6.1 NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation) – India

• Regional system providing coverage for:

o India

o Surrounding region up to ~1,500 km from India.

• Accuracy:

o Better than 10 m across India.

o Better than 20 m in surrounding region.

NavIC provides two services:

1. SPS (Standard Positioning Service) – open to all users.

2. RS (Restricted Service) – for authorised users only.

Signals (Table 12):

Designation Frequency Description

L5 1176.45 MHz Modulated with SPS and RS signals.

S 2492.028 Also modulated with SPS and RS; navigation signals are transmitted on S-
MHz band as well.

• In 2021, the Indian government announced:

o Plans to broadcast an additional L1 signal from all NavIC satellites.

• First NavIC satellite launched in July 2013.

• As of 2022:

o 8 satellites:
▪ 3 in geostationary orbits

▪ 5 in inclined geosynchronous orbits

 o Plan to expand to 12 satellites.

6.2 QZSS (Quasi-Zenith Satellite System) – Japan

• A 4-satellite regional system.

• Provides:

o Communication services

o Positioning information primarily for mobile environments

• Focus region:

o Japan, but also serves Asia–Oceania.

Standalone:

• QZSS provides limited stand-alone accuracy.

• It is primarily viewed as a GPS augmentation system.

Key points:

• QZSS satellites:

o Use same frequencies as GPS

o Have clocks synchronised with GPS time

o Therefore can be used as additional GPS satellites.

• QZSS satellites also:

o Broadcast a signal compatible with SBAS (Satellite-Based Augmentation System)

o Broadcast a high-precision signal at L6
• More about SBAS is in Chapter 5.

Orbits:

• 3 of the QZSS satellites are in periodic Quasi-Zenith Orbits (QSO).

• These orbits let satellites:

o “Dwell” over Japan for more than 12 hours per day

o At elevation > 70°, i.e., they appear almost overhead most of the time.
• Japan plans to expand QZSS to a 7-satellite system by 2024.

7. GNSS Signal Summary (Figure 37)

As more constellations become operational with more signals:

The GNSS spectrum becomes more complex.

• Figure 37 shows a combined frequency chart of signals from:

 o GPS

o GLONASS

o Galileo

o BeiDou
o QZSS

o NavIC

It includes frequencies such as:

• 1176.45 MHz (GPS L5, Galileo E5a, QZSS L5, BeiDou B2a, NavIC L5)

• 1191.795 MHz (Galileo AltBOC E5)

• 1202.025 MHz (GLONASS L3, etc.)

• 1207.14 MHz (Galileo E5b, BeiDou B2b)

• 1227.6 MHz (GPS L2, QZSS L2)

• 1268.52 MHz (BeiDou B3I)

• 1278.75 MHz (Galileo E6)

• 1561.098 MHz (BeiDou B1I)

• 1575.42 MHz (GPS L1, Galileo E1, QZSS L1, BeiDou B1C)

• 1600.955 MHz (GLONASS L1 centre region)

• 2492.028 MHz (NavIC S-band)

This visual summary helps understand:

• How densely packed and overlapping GNSS signals are in the L-band and S-band.

8. Closing Remarks of Unit 3

• After this chapter, you now have a clear overview of:

o All major Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GPS, GLONASS, BeiDou, Galileo)

o Important regional systems (NavIC, QZSS)

o Their space segments, signals, and modernisation plans

• Next chapters:

o Dive into advanced GNSS concepts, errors, corrections, and sensor integration.
 UNIT 4 – GNSS ERROR SOURCES

What Are GNSS Error Sources?

In Chapter 2, GNSS error sources were introduced as:

Factors that make it difficult for a GNSS receiver to calculate an exact position.

In this chapter, each error source is explained in more detail.

Table: Main GNSS Error Sources & Their Typical Magnitude

Contributing source Typical error range (approx.)

Satellite clocks ±2 m (≈ 6.6 ft)

Orbit errors ±2.5 m (≈ 8.2 ft)

Ionospheric delays ±5 m (≈ 16.4 ft)

Tropospheric delays ±0.5 m (≈ 1.6 ft)

Receiver noise ±0.3 m (≈ 1 ft)

Multipath ±1 m (≈ 3.3 ft)

These errors add up and can significantly affect the final GNSS position.

Satellite Clock Errors

Even though GNSS satellite atomic clocks are extremely accurate, they still drift slightly over time.

• A very small time error can cause a large position error:

o Example: 10 nanoseconds of clock error
→ about 3 m (3.3 yards) of position error.

How Are Satellite Clock Errors Managed?

1. Monitoring by Ground Control

o Satellite clocks are:

▪ Continuously compared with even more accurate ground-based clocks in the

GNSS control system.

o The satellite then broadcasts an estimate of its clock offset in its downlink data.

2. Clock Offset in Navigation Message

o The satellite provides users with an estimated clock correction.

o Typical accuracy of this estimate:
→ about ±2 m (±2.2 yards) (this may vary between GNSS systems).

To obtain better position accuracy, the receiver must compensate for residual clock errors.
 Methods to Compensate Satellite Clock Error

Two main approaches are described:

A. Using SBAS or PPP Corrections

• SBAS = Satellite-Based Augmentation System

• PPP = Precise Point Positioning

These services provide:

• Precise satellite clock information, containing:

o Corrections computed by the SBAS/PPP system.

• The receiver downloads these corrections and applies them to refine the clock offset.
More about SBAS and PPP → Chapter 5.

B. Using DGNSS or RTK

• DGNSS = Differential GNSS

• RTK = Real-Time Kinematic

These techniques use:

• A base station at a known position

• A rover receiver at an unknown position

By comparing data from both, they can remove much of the clock error.

More details on DGNSS & RTK → Chapter 5.

Orbit Errors

GNSS satellites move in precise, well-known orbits, but:

• The orbits still vary slightly from their ideal positions.

• Just like clock error, even a small orbit deviation can cause a noticeable position error at the
receiver.

Monitoring & Correction of Orbits

• The GNSS ground control system:

o Continually monitors satellite orbits.

o When changes are detected, it:

▪ Sends corrections to the satellite.

▪ Updates the broadcast ephemeris (orbit parameters).
Even after this:

• There are still small residual orbit errors, which can cause up to:

o ±2.5 m (2.7 yards) of position error.

Methods to Compensate Orbit Error

Similar to clock errors:

A. SBAS / PPP Precise Ephemeris

• Receivers can download precise ephemeris data via:

o SBAS or PPP service providers.

• These contain more accurate orbit information than the standard broadcast ephemeris.

B. DGNSS / RTK

• By using differential techniques (base + rover):

o Much of the orbit error can be removed in the relative position solution.

Details again in Chapter 5 (SBAS, PPP, DGNSS, RTK).

Ionospheric Delay

The ionosphere:

• Layer of the atmosphere 50–1,000 km (31–621 miles) above Earth.

• Contains electrically charged particles (ions).

• These ions change the transmission time of GNSS signals.

Impact on Position

• Ionospheric delay can cause significant position errors:

o Typically around ±5 m (5.5 yards)

o Can be larger during periods of high ionospheric activity.

Factors Affecting Ionospheric Delay

It varies with:

• Solar activity (e.g., solar storms)

• Time of year
• Season

• Time of day
 • Geographic location

Because of these variations, predicting ionospheric delay exactly is difficult.

Frequency Dependence

• Ionospheric delay is different for different frequencies.

• This is useful for dual-/multi-frequency receivers:

o Example: receivers that track both L1 and L2.

Dual-frequency trick:

• By comparing:

o Measurements on L1
o Measurements on L2

• The receiver can estimate ionospheric delay and remove much of this error from the computed
position.

Single-Frequency Receivers – Ionospheric Models

If a receiver can only track one frequency:

• It cannot separate ionospheric delay by frequency comparison.

• Instead, it uses ionospheric models to reduce the error.

However:

• Because ionospheric delay changes with time, location, and solar activity, models are less
effective than dual-frequency methods.

• They reduce, but do not fully eliminate, ionospheric error.

Local Corrections (DGNSS & RTK)

The ionosphere behaves similarly within a local area:

• Base station and rover are relatively close.

• So they experience almost the same ionospheric delay.

This allows:

• DGNSS and RTK systems to effectively compensate ionospheric delay by differential processing.

Tropospheric Delay

The troposphere:
 • Is the lowest layer of the atmosphere.

• It is closest to Earth’s surface.

What Causes Tropospheric Delay?

Variations occur due to changes in:

• Humidity

• Temperature

• Atmospheric pressure

These changes affect how fast the GNSS radio signals travel through the air.

Local Similarity & Correction

Just like the ionosphere:

• Tropospheric conditions are very similar over a local area.

• So base station and rover receive signals that experience almost the same tropospheric delay.

This enables:

• DGNSS and RTK systems to compensate tropospheric delay effectively.

Additionally:

• GNSS receivers can use tropospheric models to estimate and reduce residual tropospheric delay
error.

Typical magnitude (from the table):

• Around ±0.5 m (1.6 ft).

Receiver Noise

Receiver noise is the error caused by:

• The hardware and

• Software inside the GNSS receiver itself.

It includes:
• Thermal noise

• Electronics imperfections

• Internal processing limitations

High-End vs Low-Cost Receivers

• High-end GNSS receivers:

o Generally have lower receiver noise.

 o Better components, better processing → more precise measurements.

• Lower-cost receivers:

o Typically have higher noise levels.

From the table:

• Typical receiver noise ≈ ±0.3 m (1 ft).

Multipath Error

Multipath occurs when a signal from the same satellite reaches the antenna by multiple paths:

• One direct path

• One or more reflected paths, e.g., off:

o Buildings
o Walls

o Ground

o Water

How Multipath Creates Error

• Reflected signals travel a longer path → arrive slightly later than the direct signal.

• When the receiver cannot fully separate them:

o These delayed signals distort the measurement.

o The receiver might use a combination of direct + reflected signals.

o This leads to an incorrect range and therefore position error.

Figure 39 in the book illustrates the direct and reflected signals.

Typical size from the table:

• Around ±1 m (≈ 3.3 ft).

How to Reduce Multipath

Simplest method:

• Place the GNSS antenna:

o Away from reflective surfaces (e.g., not too close to buildings, walls, metal surfaces).

If that is not possible:

• The GNSS antenna and receiver must handle multipath using design techniques.

Separation of Responsibilities:
• Long-delay multipath:
 o Typically handled by the receiver’s signal processing.

• Short-delay multipath:

o Typically handled by the antenna design.

Because of the extra technology required:

• High-end GNSS receivers and antennas:

o Are better at rejecting multipath

o Provide more reliable positioning in challenging environments.

Unit 4 Closing Remarks

This chapter:

• Identified key GNSS error sources:

o Satellite clock errors

o Orbit errors

o Ionospheric delay

o Tropospheric delay

o Receiver noise

o Multipath

• Explained how each one arises

• Gave approximate error magnitudes

• Introduced basic mitigation strategies (SBAS, PPP, DGNSS, RTK, models, antenna/receiver
design).

In the next chapter (Chapter 5), the book explains:

How GNSS receivers actually mitigate these errors and

how advanced techniques improve accuracy even further.

Quick Revision Map for Unit 4 – GNSS Error Sources

GNSS ERROR SOURCES

1. Satellite Clock Error

• Very small time error → metre-level position error.
• Typical residual: ±2 m.

• Fixed by: SBAS/PPP clock corrections, DGNSS, RTK.

2. Orbit Error

• Orbits slightly off → position error.

• Typical residual: ±2.5 m.

• Fixed by: precise ephemeris (SBAS/PPP), DGNSS, RTK.

3. Ionospheric Delay

• Charged ions (50–1,000 km) slow signals.

• Typical: ±5 m (can be more).

• Varies with solar activity, time, location.

• Fixed by: dual-frequency (L1/L2), ionospheric models, DGNSS/RTK.

4. Tropospheric Delay

• Lowest atmosphere, affected by humidity, temperature, pressure.

• Typical: ±0.5 m.

• Fixed by: tropospheric models, DGNSS/RTK.

5. Receiver Noise

• Hardware + software limitations.

• Typical: ±0.3 m.
• High-end receivers → lower noise.

6. Multipath

• Reflected signals arrive late → wrong range.

• Typical: ±1 m.

• Reduced by: good antenna placement, high-end antennas & receivers.

 UNIT 5 – RESOLVING ERRORS

Why Resolving Errors Matters

• Error resolution is fundamental to GNSS performance.

• How a manufacturer designs a receiver (both hardware & software) directly affects:

o How well it can remove errors

o The level of positioning accuracy and reliability it can achieve

No single “best” technique:

• It depends on the application.

• Example:

o Finding a restaurant with your phone → metre-level is fine.

o Landing an unmanned helicopter on a moving platform → needs cm-level accuracy, high

integrity & availability.

So there are trade-offs between:

• Accuracy

• Complexity

• Availability

• Reliability
• Cost

Basic Idea: How Do We Correct GNSS Errors?

In Chapter 2, you saw single-point (standalone) positioning:

• One GNSS receiver by itself computes:

o Its position

o Time
In this chapter, we go beyond that and introduce advanced techniques to:

• Mitigate or eliminate errors in the position calculation.

Recall the fundamental relation:

Velocity = Distance ÷ Time

GNSS fundamentally measures time of flight of the signal → distance to satellite → position.
So any factor that affects:

• Distance to satellite, or
 • Signal travel time

must be addressed.

Two General Approaches to Error Resolution

The techniques can be grouped as:

A. Modelling

Model the physical phenomena that cause errors, then estimate correction values.

B. Differencing between receivers

Use two (or more) receivers and difference their observations to cancel common errors.

The rest of the chapter explains:

• Multi-frequency / multi-constellation
• Pseudorange vs carrier-phase measurements

• DGNSS, SBAS, GBAS

• RTK, Network RTK, PPP

• Post-processing

• Comparing methods

Multi-Frequency, Multi-Constellation

Being able to use multiple frequencies and multiple constellations is essential for optimal error reduction.

3.1 Multi-Frequency Receivers

Why multi-frequency helps:

• Ionospheric error depends on frequency.

• By comparing delays on two signals (e.g., L1 and L2), the receiver can:
o Estimate ionospheric delay

o Remove most of it from the position computation.

Additional advantages:

1. Modern wideband signals

o Have built-in noise and multipath mitigation capabilities.

o When combined with dual-frequency ionospheric correction, they significantly improve:

▪ Measurement precision

▪ Position accuracy
 2. Immunity to interference

o Example: if the L2 band (~1227.60 MHz) is jammed/interfered:

▪ A multi-frequency receiver can continue using L1 and L5

▪ So, positioning continues even if one band is compromised.

3.2 Multi-Constellation Receivers

A multi-constellation receiver can use satellites from:

• GPS

• GLONASS

• BeiDou

• Galileo

• (and potentially more)

Benefits of more satellites in view:

• Reduced signal acquisition time

• Better position and time accuracy

• Less impact of obstructions (buildings, foliage, etc.)

• Better satellite geometry → Improved DOP (Dilution of Precision)

Also:

• Built-in protection against signal blockage:

o If a satellite from one system is blocked, the receiver can often use others from other
constellations.

• If one entire GNSS system fails (very rare), others are still available.

To compute a position in GNSS-only mode:

• A receiver must track at least 4 satellites.

• In multi-constellation mode, it is much easier to find enough satellites:

o Especially in challenging environments (urban canyons, forests, etc.)

GNSS Measurements: Pseudorange vs Carrier Phase

So far, in earlier chapters, we mostly discussed pseudorange-based positioning:

• The receiver correlates the PRN code (C/A, etc.) with incoming signals.

• This produces ranges (pseudoranges) to satellites.

• Accuracy:
 o Typically a few metres.

For many uses, this is fine.

But some require much higher accuracy (e.g., surveying).

4.1 Carrier-Based Techniques (RTK & PPP)

To get higher accuracies, carrier-based techniques were developed:

• RTK – Real-Time Kinematic

• PPP – Precise Point Positioning

They can achieve accuracies orders of magnitude better than code-based methods.

4.2 Pseudorange vs Carrier Phase (Figure 40)

Let’s interpret the labelled parts A–D in Figure 40:

A. Phase modulation of carrier wave by PRN code

• The PRN code is modulated onto the carrier wave.

• This:

o Differentiates satellite signals

o Provides timing information for measuring ranges.

B. Code-based measurements

• Measurements based on the PRN code:

o Are unambiguous (you know which code chip is which).

o But precision is limited to sub-metre / sub-foot level.

C. Carrier wave

• The carrier is a sine wave with wavelength:

o Less than 1 m

o About 19 cm (7.5 inches) for L1.

• Because the carrier wavelength is small, it allows much more precise phase measurements.

D. Carrier phase measurement

• Measuring the phase of the carrier can be done with millimetre-level precision.

• But:
o It is ambiguous because we do not know how many full cycles exist between satellite and
receiver.
This unknown integer number of cycles is called the carrier phase ambiguity.
4.3 Resolving Carrier Phase Ambiguities

• Key to precise RTK/PPP = resolve or estimate the carrier phase ambiguities.

• Both RTK and PPP rely on:

o Pseudorange estimates (as a starting point)

o Mitigation of errors (relative positioning, corrections)

o Multiple satellite observations to find integer ambiguities that fit the data best.

So:

Whether a receiver uses code-only or code + carrier measurements has a huge impact on positioning
performance.

Differential GNSS (DGNSS)

DGNSS is a widely used technique to improve GNSS performance.

(See Figure 41 in the book.)

5.1 How DGNSS Works

1. A base station:
o Is a GNSS receiver installed at a fixed, known location.

o Its position is determined very accurately using survey techniques.

2. The base station calculates ranges to satellites using:

o Code-based GNSS positioning

o Satellite positions from precise ephemeris & satellite time

3. It then compares:

o Its known surveyed position

o With its GNSS-computed position

4. The difference between the two positions is due to:

o Satellite ephemeris errors

o Satellite clock errors

o Atmospheric delays (iono & tropo – usually the biggest contributors)

5. The base station uses this difference to construct a correction message, which it sends to rover
receivers.

6. Rovers:
o Apply these corrections to their own measurements

o Obtain improved positions.

5.2 Real-Time DGNSS Requirements

If corrections must be applied in real time:

• Need a data link from base to rover (radio, Internet, etc.).

• Need at least 4 GNSS satellites visible:

o At the base station, and

o At each rover simultaneously.

The absolute accuracy of the rover’s position:

• Depends on:

o How accurately the base station’s position is known.

5.3 Why DGNSS Works (Atmosphere & Geometry)

• GNSS satellites are at ~20,200 km (12,550 miles) altitude.

• So, for base and rover that are not too far apart:

o Their signals pass through nearly the same atmosphere.

• Typical maximum separation:

o Tens of kilometres or miles.

Thus:

Errors from atmosphere, clock, and ephemeris are highly correlated → can be cancelled via differential
corrections.

Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS)

For some applications:

• Cost of maintaining your own base + rover setup (DGNSS) is too high, or

• Rovers are widely spaced (over a large region).

In such cases, SBAS is a better solution.

6.1 What is SBAS?

• SBAS = Satellite-Based Augmentation System

• Uses geosynchronous satellites to provide:

o Accuracy improvements

o Integrity monitoring
o Sometimes additional ranging signals

Functions:
 1. Accuracy enhancement

o Provide wide-area corrections for GNSS range errors.

2. Integrity enhancement

o Quickly detect satellite signal problems.

o Alert receivers so they stop using faulty satellites.

3. Availability improvement

o SBAS satellites may themselves transmit ranging signals, providing extra “satellite-like”
sources.

6.2 SBAS Architecture (Figure 42)

Components:

• Reference stations:

o Geographically distributed over SBAS service area.

o Receive GNSS signals.

o Since their positions are known precisely, they allow measurement of GNSS errors.

• Master station(s):

o Receive data from reference stations.

o Compute wide-area corrections.

• Uplink stations:

o Send corrections to geosynchronous SBAS satellites.

• SBAS satellites:
o Broadcast corrections over the coverage area.

• User equipment:

o Receives corrections

o Applies them to its range measurements → improved positions.

6.3 Major SBAS Systems Around the World

WAAS (USA)

• Wide Area Augmentation System by FAA.

• Purpose:
o Provide GPS corrections + certified integrity for aviation (precision approaches).

• Corrections also free for civilian users in North America.

Architecture:

• WRS (Wide-Area Reference Stations) spread across North America send GPS data to:

o WMS (Wide-Area Master Station)

• WMS computes differential corrections, uploads them to:

o Two WAAS geostationary satellites

• WAAS broadcasts corrections over North America.

Types of corrections:

• Separate corrections for:

o Ionospheric delay

o Satellite timing

o Satellite orbits

This allows user applications to process individual correction components as needed.

Signal:

• Broadcasts on same frequency as GPS, so:

o Same antenna and receiver can be used.

• Receiver must have line of sight to at least one WAAS satellite.

EGNOS (Europe)

• European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service.

• Developed by:

o ESA + European Commission + EUROCONTROL.

• Augments GPS over:

o Europe & North Africa.

Services:

• Open service for EU member states + Norway + Sweden.

• Safety-of-life service for:

o ECAC Flight Information Regions (European Civil Aviation Conference).

Future:

• Planned to also support Galileo signals.

BDSBAS (China)

• BeiDou SBAS.
 • Extension of the BeiDou system.

• Provides:

o Accuracy improvements

o Integrity monitoring
• Coverage:

o China and surrounding area.

MSAS (Japan)

• MTSAT Satellite-Based Augmentation System.

• Uses:

o Two MTSAT (Multi-functional Transport Satellites)

o A ground network

• Augments GPS accuracy over Japan.

🇮🇳 GAGAN (India)

• GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation.

• SBAS supporting flight navigation over Indian airspace.

Architecture:

• 3 geostationary satellites

• 15 reference stations across India

• 3 uplink stations

• 2 control centres

Compatible with:

• WAAS, EGNOS, MSAS.

🇷🇺 SDCM (Russia)

• System for Differential Corrections and Monitoring.

• Provides:

o Accuracy enhancement
o Integrity monitoring

• For:
o GLONASS and GPS.
Also:

• Plans to provide PPP services for GLONASS L1/L3.

Other SBAS in Development

• KASS – Korean Augmentation Satellite System (South Korea)

• SACCSA – SBAS for South/Central America & Caribbean

• A-SBAS – planned for Africa & Indian Ocean

• SouthPAN – Southern Positioning Augmentation System (Australia & New Zealand)

Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS)

Also called LAAS – Local Area Augmentation System.

• Provides:

o Differential corrections

o Integrity monitoring

Transmission:

• Uses VHF radio link to transmit corrections to receivers.

Components:

• Several GNSS antennas at known positions

• A central control system

• A VHF transmitter

Coverage:

• Covers a local area (by GNSS standards).

• Used where high accuracy, availability, and integrity are needed, e.g.:

o Airports (precision approach and landing).

Real-Time Kinematic (RTK)

Revisiting code-based positioning:

• In Chapter 2:

o Receiver correlates PRN codes to get pseudorange to 4+ satellites.

o Achieves metre-level accuracy.

For higher precision:

RTK uses carrier-phase measurements to achieve cm-level accuracy.

8.1 Basic RTK Concept (Figure 43)

• RTK is complex, but conceptually:

1. Base station & rover both track satellite carrier phases.

2. Range is computed by:

o Determining the number of carrier cycles between satellite & rover.

o Multiplying by wavelength.

3. Raw carrier-based ranges still include:

o Satellite clock & ephemeris errors

o Ionospheric & tropospheric delays

4. To remove these, the base sends its measurements to the rover.

5. A process called ambiguity resolution:

o Determines the integer number of whole cycles.

o High-end RTK receivers can resolve ambiguities almost instantaneously.

Rover position is then computed using:

• Ambiguity-resolved carrier data

• Differential corrections

Accuracy depends on:

• Baseline length (distance base–rover)

• Quality and accuracy of base station observations

• Environment (multipath, interference)
• Receiver and antenna quality

Good site selection (low multipath, good sky view) is crucial.

8.2 Network RTK

• Uses multiple permanent stations spread over a region.

• These stations send data to a central processing station.

Process:

1. Permanent stations regularly send positioning data to central facility.

2. RTK users transmit their approximate location to the central station.

3. The central station computes and transmits:

o Either correction data or

o Direct corrected positions for the user.

Benefits:

• Fewer base stations needed overall.

• Data delivery often via cellular networks or other wireless links.

Precise Point Positioning (PPP)

PPP provides high-accuracy position using a single receiver.

9.1 How PPP Works (Figure 44)

• PPP uses:

o Corrections generated from a network of global reference stations.

Steps:

1. A global network of reference stations:

o Collects GNSS measurements for all key signals.

2. PPP processing centre:

o Computes precise corrections:

▪ Satellite clock

▪ Satellite orbit

▪ Biases

▪ Sometimes atmospheric corrections

3. Corrections are delivered to users via:

o Satellite (L-band) or

o Internet

4. User receiver:

o Applies corrections to its measurements.

o Position accuracy improves significantly.

9.2 Convergence & Accuracy

• PPP usually needs time to converge to full accuracy:

o To resolve:

▪ Local atmospheric delays

▪ Multipath
▪ Receiver biases

• Accuracy & convergence depend on:

o Quality of corrections
 o How well receiver applies them.

Peak performance:

• Advanced PPP can achieve:

o Up to 2.5 cm (0.98 in) accuracy within about 1 minute.

9.3 PPP vs SBAS

Both have a similar structure (like SBAS):

• Use networks of reference stations

• Provide correction data via satellite/Internet

But:

• PPP typically:

o Uses carrier-phase methods

o Provides higher accuracy than SBAS

o Is typically a paid service

• SBAS:

o Uses mainly code-based corrections

o Lower accuracy than PPP

o Generally free and regional

• PPP correction stream:

o Usually global (worldwide applicability).

9.4 PPP Error Handling: Three Steps

PPP mitigates error sources through:

1. MODELLING

Some phenomena are predictable and can be accurately modelled, e.g.:

• Solid Earth tides

• Antenna phase wind-up

• Dry component of tropospheric delay

The wet troposphere (local humidity) is more variable:

• Can be modelled, but modelling error must then also be estimated.

2. ESTIMATING
PPP estimation also solves for additional unknowns, such as:

• Receiver position

• Ionosphere delay (if not fully removed by dual-frequency)

• Residual troposphere delay

• Receiver biases

• Carrier phase ambiguities

3. APPLYING EXTERNAL CORRECTIONS

PPP providers supply:

• Satellite clock corrections

• Orbit corrections

• Bias corrections
• In some regions, atmospheric corrections

Delivery:

• Typically via satellite or Internet.

Providers maintain:

• A reference station network collecting data on all relevant signals.

• Corrections are then broadcast to subscribed users.

GNSS Data Post-Processing

Real-time corrections aren’t always necessary.

For example:

• Airborne survey missions may only need high-accuracy positions after the flight.

10.1 How Post-Processing Works

1. During the mission:

o Raw GNSS measurements are recorded and stored.

2. After the mission:

o Data from one or more base receivers are used.

o Multi-base processing can:

▪ Maintain high accuracy over large project areas.

3. If near a permanent GNSS network:

o Base station data may be downloaded for free instead of setting up your own base.
 4. Sometimes:

o PPP post-processing is used:

▪ No base station needed

▪ Uses precise clock & ephemeris corrections downloaded later.

10.2 Software & Outputs

• Post-processing software:

o Runs on PCs, with user-friendly GUIs.

o May integrate with customer or 3rd-party modules.

Example (Figure 45):

• Left side: vehicle route/tracks

• Right side: recorded measurements (like velocity) resolved into:

o Horizontal

o Vertical components.

General outcome:

Post-processing usually produces a more accurate and complete solution than what is possible in real
time.

Which Correction Method to Use?

There is no universally “best” method, only the most suitable method for a given application.
Figure 46 in the book compares:

• Accuracy vs baseline length for:

o GNSS (standalone)

o DGNSS

o RTK

o SBAS

o PPP

Now the text compares methods pairwise.

A. DGNSS vs RTK
Similarities:

• Both need:
 o A base station at known coordinates

o One or more rovers

o A communication link between them

Difference:
• RTK uses carrier phase → much higher accuracy.

• DGNSS uses code-based corrections → metre-level accuracies.

Advantages:

• DGNSS:

o Works over longer baselines

o Less expensive equipment

• RTK:

o Much higher accuracy, but:

▪ More complex

▪ Higher implementation cost

B. SBAS vs PPP

Similarities:

• Both receive corrections via satellites.

Differences:
• PPP:
o Uses carrier-phase → higher accuracy

o Often uses private, high-quality correction services

o Paid subscription

o Typically worldwide applicability

• SBAS:

o Mostly code-based
o Lower accuracy than PPP

o Free

o Regional (e.g., WAAS, EGNOS)

C. DGNSS vs SBAS

• Accuracy is similar.
 • But equipment & setup differ:

SBAS:

• Only needs:

o An SBAS-capable receiver
o A GNSS antenna

• No need to set up your own base station.

DGNSS:

• Requires:

o Base station receiver + antenna

o Rover receiver + antenna

o Communication link between them

o Correct setup of base station at a known location.

D. RTK vs PPP

Accuracy & Behaviour:

• Both can provide very high accuracy.

• RTK:

o Typically:

▪ Slightly higher accuracy

▪ Much faster initialisation (ambiguity resolution in seconds)
o But:

▪ More complicated

▪ More expensive

▪ Needs:

▪ At least two RTK-capable receivers

▪ GNSS antennas
▪ Communication link

▪ Base must be precisely surveyed.

• PPP:
o Requires:

▪ A single PPP-compatible receiver

▪ Antenna capable of receiving GNSS + L-band and/or Internet

 ▪ A subscription to correction service

o Has:

▪ Slightly lower accuracy (in some cases)

▪ Longer convergence time

o But:

▪ Simpler setup

▪ Newer advanced PPP systems have reduced convergence and accuracy gaps.

Baseline Effect:

• RTK:

o Performance depends on baseline length (distance base–rover).

o At short baselines (few km/miles):

▪ Very high accuracy and availability.

o As baseline grows:

▪ Accuracy and reliability decrease.

o At very long baselines:

▪ RTK may no longer be usable.

• PPP:

o Does not use a base station.

o Not affected by baseline length at all.

o Can provide full accuracy anywhere in the world within the coverage of the correction
service.

Closing Remarks of Unit 5

This chapter has:

• Introduced advanced GNSS error-resolution techniques:

o Multi-frequency & multi-constellation

o Code vs carrier phase

o DGNSS, SBAS, GBAS

o RTK, Network RTK

o PPP
o Post-processing

• Shown that each method has its own:

 o Accuracy level

o Range of use

o Complexity

o Cost
• Stressed that:

There is no single “best” method — only best for a specific application.

If you want to go deeper into math & theory, the book suggests checking the references at the end.

SUPER-QUICK REVISION CHEAT (UNIT 5)

UNIT 5 – RESOLVING ERRORS

Goal:

• Remove or reduce GNSS errors to improve accuracy & reliability.

Two main strategies:

A) Model error-causing phenomena → apply corrections.

B) Use differencing between receivers → cancel common errors.

Multi-frequency:

• Compare L1/L2 (etc.) → remove ionospheric error.

• Wideband → better multipath & noise performance.

• More resistant to interference (if one band is jammed, others still work).

Multi-constellation:

• More satellites → faster fix, better accuracy, better DOP, robust to blockage.
• Easier to maintain 4+ satellites for position.

Pseudorange vs carrier-phase:

• Pseudorange (code) → unambiguous, metre-level accuracy.

• Carrier phase → mm-level precision but ambiguous (unknown cycles).

• RTK & PPP depend on resolving carrier ambiguities.

DGNSS:

• Base at known position + rover.

• Base computes corrections for clock, orbit, atmosphere.

• Works best within tens of km.

SBAS:

• Regional geosynchronous satellites (WAAS, EGNOS, BDSBAS, MSAS, GAGAN, SDCM, KASS,
SACCSA, A-SBAS, SouthPAN).

• Improve accuracy & integrity, broadcast free corrections.

GBAS:

• Local (airport) VHF-based differential corrections.

• Very high integrity & accuracy for precision approach.

RTK:

• Carrier-phase differential technique.

• Base + rover + comms.

• cm-level, fast initialisation, baseline-limited.

Network RTK:

• Multiple permanent stations + central server.

• Reduces need for many standalone bases.

PPP:

• Single receiver + global corrections (satellite/Internet).

• Models and estimates errors; uses external clock/orbit/bias corrections.

• High accuracy worldwide; slower convergence; usually subscription-based.

Post-processing:
• Use stored data + base or PPP corrections after mission.
• Often more accurate & flexible than real-time.
Method comparison:

• DGNSS vs RTK → RTK more accurate, DGNSS cheaper & longer baseline.

• SBAS vs PPP → PPP more accurate (carrier + private corrections), SBAS free & regional.

• DGNSS vs SBAS → similar accuracy; DGNSS needs base + comms; SBAS only receiver.
• RTK vs PPP → RTK higher accuracy & fast; PPP simpler, global, but slower convergence.
 UNIT 6 – SENSOR FUSION

Why Sensor Fusion?

In Chapter 5, you learned how to improve GNSS accuracy by reducing GNSS error sources (clock, orbit,
atmosphere, etc.).
Now, this chapter goes one step further:

What if GNSS itself becomes weak or unavailable?

(e.g., under trees, in cities, in tunnels, inside warehouses)

Answer:
We combine GNSS with other sensors → this is called sensor fusion.

What is “Sensor Fusion”?

• Sensor fusion = combining data from multiple sensors to create:

o A more robust,

o More accurate, and

o More reliable navigation solution

than any single sensor could provide.

Increasingly, it is not just:

• GNSS

• Or even GNSS + INS

It can be an amalgamation of many technologies, such as:

• GNSS

• INS (Inertial Navigation System)

• Cameras (vision)

• Odometers / Distance Measurement Instruments (DMI)

• Digital elevation models

• Range sensors:

o LiDAR

o Radar

• And any other useful sensor available

All are taken into account together to form the best possible navigation solution under all conditions.
 GNSS + INS Systems

2.1 GNSS Recap

• GNSS uses signals from orbiting satellites to compute:

o Position

o Time

o Velocity

• Works very well when:

o The antenna has clear line of sight to at least four satellites.

• But:

o When GNSS signals are blocked by:

▪ Buildings
▪ Trees

▪ Tunnels

o Navigation becomes unreliable or impossible.

2.2 What is an INS?

An INS – Inertial Navigation System uses:

• Angular rate + acceleration information from an IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit)

• To compute:

o Relative position

o Velocity

o Attitude (orientation)

The IMU

An IMU is made of six sensors arranged on three orthogonal axes (Figure 47):
• Axes: X, Y, Z

• On each axis:

o 1 × Accelerometer → measures linear acceleration

o 1 × Gyroscope → measures rotational rate

So:
With accelerometers + gyroscopes on X, Y, Z → IMU can track 3D movement very precisely.

2.3 IMU & Coordinate Frames

The book shows two axis concepts:

• Figure 47 – IMU axes (X, Y, Z)

• Figure 48 – Axes relative to Earth:

o North (N)
o East (E)

o Up (U) (local vertical)

INS translates IMU sensors’ raw measurements into:

• Position and velocity in a local frame

• Attitude (orientation) of the object:

o Roll

o Pitch

o Azimuth (heading)

2.4 What Does INS Provide?

From IMU measurements → INS can provide:

• Relative position

• Velocity

• Attitude (roll, pitch, heading)

This is extremely important for applications like:

• Aerial survey
• Hydrography (marine mapping)

• Autonomous vehicles

For an autonomous vehicle, for example:

• You must know:

o Where it is

o How fast it is moving

o Which direction it is pointing / turning

2.5 INS Update Rates

• IMU gives data as discrete measurements at regular intervals.

• INS typically runs at 50 to 1,000 Hz (50–1000 updates per second).

• Many IMUs can sample even faster internally.

High update rates → smooth, continuous navigation even when GNSS is intermittent.

Problems with Standalone INS

INS is powerful, but not perfect.

Two major drawbacks:

3.1 Only Relative, Needs a Starting Point

• INS gives relative motion from an initial starting point.

• That starting point must be provided externally (e.g., from GNSS or survey).

Without a good start, the entire INS solution is offset.

3.2 Drift Over Time

• IMU sensors (accelerometers & gyros) have errors:

o Biases

o Scale factor errors

o Noise

• IMU measurements are integrated many times per second to get:

o Position

o Velocity
• Because integration is repeated:

o Errors also accumulate over time.

• This leads to drift:

o The INS solution moves away from the true position as time goes on.

• If there is no external reference, an INS will drift quickly.

To control error growth:

INS needs external updates, such as GNSS-derived positions and velocities, fed into a mathematical
filter to estimate and reduce IMU errors.

GNSS + INS: Working Together

GNSS can be a perfect external reference for INS:

• GNSS provides:
o Absolute coordinates (start position)

o Continuous positions & velocities when available

INS provides:

• High-rate relative motion and attitude

When combined:

• GNSS updates INS estimates

• INS can continue to navigate when GNSS is blocked

4.1 Loosely Coupled vs Tightly/Deeply Coupled

Loosely Coupled

• GNSS is used to provide:

o Positions & velocities

• These are input to INS filter to estimate IMU errors.

• INS continues to navigate when GNSS drops out.

Tightly/Deeply Coupled

In more advanced systems:

• Raw GNSS measurements (pseudorange, carrier phase) are directly used in the combined filter.

• INS & GNSS are tightly integrated in a joint estimation process.

Benefits:
• INS can:

o Help GNSS reacquire lost signals faster

o Help reject bad signals

• GNSS helps INS:

o Reduce drift

o Maintain accurate position & attitude

Figure 49 in the book shows a simplified tightly coupled system consisting of:
• GNSS filter:

o Estimates position, velocity, satellite clock offset, carrier phase ambiguities

• Inertial filter:

o Estimates position, velocity, attitude

o Gyroscope errors
o Accelerometer errors

• The two filters exchange information, giving:

o An integrated GNSS+INS navigation solution.

4.2 Combined Performance – GNSS+INS (Figure 50)

Figure 50 compares:

• True path
• GNSS solution

• Drifting INS solution

• Combined GNSS+INS solution

Conceptually:

• When GNSS is good (clear sky, many satellites):

o The GNSS solution matches the true path closely.

o INS is continuously corrected by GNSS.

• When GNSS becomes poor (urban canyon, trees, tunnels):

o GNSS-only solution becomes unreliable or stops.

o INS keeps providing navigation – though INS alone would drift over time.

• When fused:

o GNSS+INS solution stays close to the true path:

▪ GNSS controls long-term drift

▪ INS fills gaps during GNSS outages

So:
GNSS + INS together give a powerful, robust navigation solution, far better than either one alone.

Odometers & DMI – Ground Vehicle Aiding

GNSS is not the only external sensor that can help navigation.

For ground vehicles, a very common extra sensor is:

• DMI – Distance Measurement Instrument (like an odometer).

What it does:

• Provides an independent measurement of:

o Displacement (distance travelled)

o Velocity
This can:

• Aid the GNSS+INS solution

• Be especially useful when GNSS signals are:

 o Denied, e.g., in a tunnel.

So in a car system, for instance:

• GNSS + INS + Odometer together give:

o Better stability
o More accurate speed & distance

o Navigation continuity when GNSS is blocked.

Vision-Aided Navigation

Another powerful sensor in sensor fusion is the camera.

6.1 What is Vision-Aided Navigation?

• Use imagery from a camera to provide position information to the navigation system.
• The navigation system:

o Processes images

o Recognises and tracks objects/targets in the environment

o Determines how the camera has moved between frames.

There are two main ways to use vision:

1. Using known surveyed camera targets

o Targets in the environment have known coordinates.

o When they appear in images, the system can compute absolute position.

2. Using everyday objects as control points

o Even without special targets, common objects (walls, corners, pillars) can be:

▪ Recognised and tracked

▪ Motion of camera between frames gives relative 3D movement.

6.2 Combining Vision with GNSS+INS

A vision-aided system can be added to GNSS+INS:

• When GNSS is available:

o GNSS+INS primarily handle navigation.

• When GNSS is not available (indoors, tunnels, etc.):

o Vision system uses known features / targets to:

▪ Provide position updates to INS

▪ Help control drift

Thus:

Vision + INS + GNSS = even more robust position + attitude solution.

6.3 Example: Yard to Warehouse Autonomous Vehicle

Consider an autonomous vehicle carrying loads between:

• An outdoor yard

• And an indoor warehouse

Outside (yard):

• GNSS signals are available.

• GNSS+INS handle navigation:

o GNSS provides absolute position.

o INS provides high-rate motion and attitude.

Inside (warehouse):

• GNSS is blocked.

• Vision-aided system:

o Uses known features/targets inside the building:

▪ Walls, pillars, markers, QR codes, etc.

o Provides position updates to INS.

INS then:
• Maintains full navigation (position, velocity, attitude).
Result:

The autonomous vehicle can operate seamlessly from outside (GNSS area) to inside (GNSS-denied space)
using sensor fusion.

Closing Remarks of Unit 6

This chapter:

• Introduced the concept of sensor fusion → combining GNSS with:

o INS
o Odometers / DMI

o Cameras (vision)
o Other sensors like LiDAR, Radar, DEMs

• Explained:
 o How GNSS+INS are fused

o Why INS alone drifts and needs external references

o How tightly coupled systems use raw GNSS to help INS and vice versa

o How odometer and vision can further strengthen navigation, especially in GNSS-denied
environments.

For deeper technical and mathematical details, the book suggests:

Checking the references at the end of the book.

QUICK REVISION SNAPSHOT – UNIT 6 (SENSOR FUSION)

SENSOR FUSION

Goal:

• Use multiple sensors together to get robust, accurate navigation in all conditions.

Key Sensors:

• GNSS – absolute position, time, velocity (needs satellite visibility).

• INS (IMU: accelerometers + gyros on X,Y,Z) – relative position, velocity, attitude.

• Odometer/DMI – ground distance & speed.

• Vision (cameras) – image-based position/relative motion.

• Others: LiDAR, Radar, digital elevation models, etc.

INS:

• Pros: high update rate, provides attitude (roll, pitch, heading).

• Cons: relative only; errors accumulate → drift; needs external reference.

GNSS + INS:

• Loosely coupled – GNSS positions/velocities update INS filter.

• Tightly/deeply coupled – raw GNSS measurements + INS in one filter.

• Good GNSS: GNSS anchors solution.

• Bad GNSS: INS carries navigation in gaps.

Odometer:
• Adds extra displacement/velocity info for ground vehicles.

• Useful in tunnels, urban canyons, etc.

Vision-Aided Navigation:
• Processes camera images to recognise & track objects/features.

• Can use surveyed targets or natural features.

• Provides position/attitude updates when GNSS unavailable.

• Example: autonomous vehicle from yard (GNSS) into warehouse (vision + INS).

Bottom line:

• Sensor fusion = GNSS + INS + other sensors → robust navigation in all environments.
 UNIT 7 – GNSS THREATS

GNSS is used for Positioning, Navigation and Timing (PNT) in many critical systems.
But GNSS signals are:

• Very low power by the time they reach Earth

• Easy to disturb, block, or fake

This chapter explains the main threats and how they are mitigated.

Types of Threats to GNSS Signals

Broadly, GNSS can be threatened by:

• Interference (unintentional or intentional)

• Jamming

• Spoofing
• Signal blockage

• Constellation failure

Let’s break them down.

Interference & Jamming

2.1 Interference (Usually Unintentional)

Interference = any unwanted signal in or near the GNSS frequency bands that makes it harder for the
receiver to detect the weak GNSS signal.

• Usually not deliberate.

• Can come from:

o Faulty electronic equipment

o Non-GNSS transmitters leaking into GNSS bands

o Misconfigured devices

These signals raise the noise floor, making the GNSS signals hard or impossible to track properly.

2.2 Jamming (Always Intentional)

Jamming = deliberately transmitting a signal in the GNSS frequency band to overwhelm GNSS signals
and stop receivers from producing PNT solutions.
Key points:
• Goal: Make GNSS unusable in a local area or region.

• Often illegal in most countries.

 • Devices called “personal privacy devices”:

o Low-power jammers sold online.

o Even a small jammer can:

▪ Overpower GNSS signals across a large geographic area.

▪ Disable position and timing for many receivers nearby.

2.3 Band-Adjacent Interference

Not all interference is exactly on the GNSS frequency.

Some jammers use high-power transmitters in bands adjacent to GNSS bands, causing:

• The receiver’s front-end electronics to be overwhelmed

• Difficulty in receiving GNSS signals properly, even if the interference is slightly off-frequency

This is known as band-adjacent jamming.

Defences Against Interference & Jamming

3.1 Signal Filtering

The first line of defence in any RF system is filtering.

1. GNSS Antenna Filtering

o Good GNSS antennas are designed to:

▪ Boost gain in GNSS bands

▪ Attenuate (reduce) signals that are out-of-band

o This naturally reduces band-adjacent interference.

2. Receiver Filtering

o GNSS receivers include filters that:

▪ Reduce power of out-of-band signals

o Helps against band-adjacent jammers.

3. Advanced Interference Detection & Adaptive Filtering

o Some advanced receivers can:

▪ Detect interfering signals

▪ Dynamically create filters to reduce both:

▪ In-band interference

▪ Out-of-band interference
3.2 Multiple Navigation Sensors

For short interruptions, other sensors can help “bridge the gap”:

• IMUs (Inertial Measurement Units)

• Odometers / Distance Measurement Instruments

• Altimeters

During brief GNSS outages:

• These sensors can provide continuity of navigation.

• GNSS+INS combination (from Chapter 6) is a key approach:

o INS keeps navigating while GNSS is denied

o GNSS re-stabilises INS when it comes back

3.3 Multi-Frequency / Multi-Constellation GNSS

Multi-frequency and multi-constellation receivers are also a defence.

Example:

• Suppose L1 band around 1575 MHz is completely jammed:

o GPS L1

o GLONASS L1

o Galileo E1

o BeiDou B1
→ all disrupted

But a multi-frequency receiver can still use:

• GPS L2 & GLONASS L2 around 1227 MHz

• GPS L5, Galileo E5a, BeiDou B2a around 1176 MHz

So:

Even if one band is jammed, the receiver may continue PNT using other frequencies.

Also:

• Newer civilian signals like GPS L5, Galileo E5a, Galileo E5b:

o Are wider-band, stronger, and have better interference performance.

3.4 Encrypted Signals

Some GNSS constellations transmit encrypted military signals, e.g.:

• Y-code and M-code on GPS L1 & L2

Characteristics:

• Harder to spoof

• More resistant to interference & jamming

Access:
• Restricted; not available to all users.

• But they significantly strengthen GNSS resilience for authorised users.

3.5 Anti-Jam Antennas (CRPAs)

Anti-jam antenna systems use:

• Controlled Reception Pattern Antennas (CRPAs)

• Plus sophisticated electronics

Working principle:
• Antenna has multiple elements.

• It adjusts its reception pattern to:

o Reduce gain in directions where interference/jamming is coming from.

o Maintain gain toward directions with legitimate GNSS satellites.

Effect:

• Less jamming signal is received.

• Real GNSS signals from other directions remain usable.

Figure 51 example:
• Two vehicles are near a jammer:

o Right vehicle: standard antenna → its GNSS signals are overwhelmed.

o Left vehicle: anti-jam antenna → blocks jammer direction → continues to receive

legitimate GNSS.

Spoofing – Faking GNSS Signals

Spoofing is different from jamming:

• Jamming: denies GNSS by overpowering signals.

• Spoofing: deceives GNSS into showing the wrong position or time.

Spoofing is always intentional.

4.1 How Spoofing Works

Typical spoofing attack:

 1. Jam the receiver briefly

o So that it loses lock on real satellites.

2. Transmit a fake GNSS signal

o Same structure and frequency as real GNSS signals.

o Either:

▪ Generated artificially, or

▪ A replay of previously recorded real GNSS data.

3. Control the fake signal power level

o Make it slightly stronger than real satellites.

o Receiver locks onto the spoofed signal instead of the true GNSS signal.

4. Modify the navigation message

o Change satellite data so that the receiver:

▪ Computes a false position and/or

▪ A false time.

Result:

The receiver still thinks it’s working normally, but its outputs are wrong.

4.2 Protection Against Spoofing

Best protection:
• Use encrypted signals (like Y-code, M-code on GPS L1/L2).
• These are extremely hard to spoof, but:

o Only authorised users can access them.

For open-signal receivers (civilian GNSS):

• Spoofing mitigation is more challenging, but there are strategies:

1. Multi-frequency / Multi-constellation

o Spoofing multiple frequencies and multiple constellations simultaneously is complex and

expensive for an attacker.

o A receiver tracking several frequencies/constellations can:

▪ Detect inconsistencies
▪ Recognise potential spoofing
▪ Reject fake signals or switch to other measurements.

2. Other Navigation Sensors (e.g., GNSS+INS)

 o IMU measurements cannot be spoofed via RF.

o If GNSS suddenly says the user “jumped” to a new position,

▪ But INS shows no corresponding motion,

▪ The system can detect a spoofing attempt.

o GNSS+INS fusion helps:

▪ Detect,

▪ And often overcome spoofing.

Signal Blockage

GNSS receivers need clear line of sight to the satellites they track.

When objects block the path—such as:

• Buildings

• Trees

• Bridges

• Overpasses

The receiver may:

• Lose one or more satellites.

• In dense environments (“urban canyons” in big downtown areas), many satellites can be blocked at
once.

If too many satellites are blocked:

• The receiver may not have enough satellites to:

o Compute a valid position and time.

5.1 Mitigating Signal Blockage

1. Track Multiple Constellations

o Using more than one GNSS constellation (GPS + GLONASS + Galileo + BeiDou, etc.)
gives:

▪ More satellites in the sky

▪ Better chance to find enough visible satellites, even in blocked environments.

2. Use Multiple Navigation Sensors

o As with interference/jamming:

▪ IMUs and other sensors help bridge outages due to blockage.

o They also help with:

 ▪ Reacquisition of GNSS after the receiver comes out from under the blockage.

Constellation Failure

This is an extremely unlikely scenario:

• A whole GNSS constellation (e.g., GPS, GLONASS, etc.) fails.

However:

• Receivers that can track more than one constellation are naturally protected:

o If one system fails, others are still available for PNT.

So multi-constellation capability is a form of resilience against this rare case.

Closing Remarks – Why GNSS Protection Matters

As more and more systems depend on GNSS for:

• Positioning

• Navigation

• Timing (PNT)

…the issue of protecting GNSS has become very important.

This chapter:
• Highlighted major threats:

o Interference

o Jamming

o Spoofing

o Signal blockage

o Constellation failure

• Introduced defence mechanisms:

o Signal filtering

o Multi-sensor navigation (GNSS+INS, odometers, etc.)

o Multi-frequency & multi-constellation

o Encrypted signals

o Anti-jam antennas
If you want deeper technical detail, the book points you to the references at the end.

QUICK REVISION CHEAT – UNIT 7 (GNSS THREATS)

UNIT 7 – GNSS THREATS

Main Threat Types:

1. Interference (unintentional)
• Unwanted RF energy in GNSS bands (faulty electronics, leaks, etc.).

• Makes weak GNSS signals hard to detect.

2. Jamming (intentional)

• Transmitting signals in GNSS bands to overpower satellites.

• “Personal privacy devices” can jam over a large area (illegal in most places).

3. Band-adjacent interference
• Strong signals in bands near GNSS frequencies overload receiver front-end.

Defences:

• Antenna + receiver filtering to reject out-of-band signals.

• Advanced receivers detect and adaptively filter interference.

• Extra sensors (IMU, odometer, altimeter) to bridge short outages.

• Multi-frequency, multi-constellation to use unaffected bands and systems.

• Encrypted signals (Y-code, M-code) for resistant military-grade GNSS.
• Anti-jam antennas (CRPAs) to null signals from jammer direction.

Spoofing:

• Faking GNSS signals to make receiver output wrong position/time.

• Works by jamming briefly, then feeding fake but stronger GNSS-like signals.

• Defence:
– Track encrypted signals (best, but restricted).

– Multi-frequency / multi-constellation consistency checks.

– GNSS+INS: IMU motion cannot be spoofed RF-wise.

Signal Blockage:

• Buildings, trees, bridges block line-of-sight to satellites.

• In urban canyons, too many satellites can be blocked → no position.

• Mitigation:

– Multi-constellation → more satellites available.

– Extra sensors → bridge outages, aid re-acquisition.

Constellation Failure:

• Extremely unlikely that a whole system fails.

• Multi-constellation receivers provide protection.

Bottom line:

• GNSS is vulnerable to RF threats and blockages.

• Robust PNT needs: multi-constellation, multi-frequency, anti-jam measures, and sensor fusion.
 UNIT 8 – AUTONOMY (GNSS & AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES)

Big Picture: Positioning for Autonomous Vehicles (AVs)

So far, you’ve learned how positioning works (GNSS, errors, corrections, sensor fusion).

Now this chapter focuses on:

How these positioning concepts are used in Autonomous Vehicles (AVs)

to reduce human error and navigate safely at all times.

Key ideas in this unit:

• Levels of autonomy (how “self-driving” a vehicle is)

• Sensors used by AVs (LiDAR, radar, cameras, GNSS, INS, etc.)

• Sensor fusion – combining all sensor data

• Functional safety & integrity (how to be sure the position is safe to use)
• Protection levels & alert limits

• Functional safety + cybersecurity in AV development

Autonomy Levels (SAE Levels 0–5)

Autonomous features are being added to more and more vehicles.

To describe how automated a vehicle is, the SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) defines 6 levels of
automation:

From Level 0 → Level 5:

• Level 0 – No Automation

o The driver does everything:

▪ Steering
▪ Braking

▪ Acceleration

▪ Monitoring the environment

o No real self-driving features.

• Level 1 – Driver Assistance

o Vehicle can assist with either steering or speed.

o Examples:
▪ Adaptive Cruise Control (controls speed)
▪ Lane keeping assist

o But the driver is still responsible overall.

 • Level 2 – Partial Automation

o Vehicle can control both steering and speed under some conditions.

o Examples:

▪ More advanced lane-centering + adaptive cruise.

o Driver must:

▪ Monitor the road

▪ Be ready to take over at any time.

• Level 3 – Conditional Automation

o Vehicle can drive itself in certain situations (e.g., on highways).

o System handles driving, but:

▪ May ask the human to take over when it reaches its limits.

• Level 4 – High Automation

o Vehicle can drive itself in defined environments (e.g., a specific city zone).

o If conditions are within its operational design domain, it does not need human input.

o Outside those conditions, it may not operate.

• Level 5 – Full Automation

o Fully self-driving in all conditions where a human could drive.

o No requirement for ongoing human interaction at all.

These levels give a common language to say “how autonomous” a specific vehicle is.

Sensors in Autonomous Vehicles

AVs use many sensors to understand the environment and navigate safely.

A sensor measures something in the physical world and turns it into an electrical signal.

No single sensor is enough on its own.

Each sensor has strengths and weaknesses, so they are combined.

Key sensors discussed:

• LiDAR

• Radar
• Cameras

• Plus GNSS + INS, and other vehicle sensors (wheel speed, steering angle, etc.)

LiDAR
LiDAR = Light Detection and Ranging

How it works:

• Inside LiDAR, there are semiconductor devices that fire tiny laser pulses (focused beams of
photons).

• Configurations:

o Rotor-mounted → spins to give a 360° field of view

o Solid-state → fixed, fires laser arrays over a specific field of view

• A laser pulse:

o Leaves the LiDAR

o Hits an object

o Reflects back and is detected by an infrared detector

• By measuring the time-of-flight (time taken to go out and come back):

o Distance to the object is calculated.

Advantages:
• Gives detailed 3D map of surroundings.

Limitations:

• Bad weather (fog, heavy rain) can reduce LiDAR performance:

o Decreases range and data integrity.

Radar

Radar = Radio Detection and Ranging

Similar to LiDAR (time-of-flight), but:

• Uses radio waves, not lasers.

Key features:

• Radar sensors are usually fixed and directed.

• The wavelength of radio waves is longer than light, so:

o They can travel further

o Can detect objects at greater distances

• Resolution is usually lower than LiDAR, but very useful for:

o Long-range detection
o All-weather operation

Radar can also detect movement & speed using Doppler effect:
 • If an object moves closer:

o Reflected frequency increases (waves get compressed).

• If an object moves away:

o Frequency decreases (waves stretch out).

Typical uses in vehicles:

• Mounted on front, sides, rear.

• Especially valuable for:

o Forward collision warning

o Collision avoidance

o Adaptive cruise control

Cameras

LiDAR and radar help answer:

• “Where are objects?”

• “How far?”

• “How fast are they moving?”

But we also need:

• “What are these objects?”

• “What is the lane marking, traffic sign, pedestrian, car, etc.?”

• “Where am I relative to landmarks?”

Cameras help with:

• Object recognition & tracking

o Using computer vision to recognise:

▪ Cars, people, signs, lanes, obstacles, etc.

• Relative positioning in 3D
o When objects are used as control points, differences between successive images give:

▪ Relative movement of the vehicle in 3D space.

• Absolute positioning

o If the camera recognises known surveyed landmarks/targets:

▪ It can help determine absolute position in that environment.

Limitations:

• Cameras depend on visible features:

 o Empty/featureless environments reduce usefulness.

• Performance drops in:

o Poor lighting (night, glare)

o Bad weather (fog, heavy rain, snow)

So again, cameras are powerful but cannot be relied on alone.

GNSS + INS Integration for AVs

GNSS gives absolute global position.

INS (Inertial Navigation System) gives high-rate relative motion + attitude.

7.1 Accuracy Requirements

• Unaided GNSS:

o About 2–5 m accuracy 95% of the time.

• Autonomous vehicles:
o Typically need accuracy around 2 decimetres (~20 cm / 7.8 inches).

o And they need strong guarantees:

▪ The error must be smaller than lane width.

So:

Standalone GNSS is not accurate or guaranteed enough for AV safety.

7.2 PPP for AVs

To reach higher accuracy, we need:

• External corrections + carrier-phase positioning.

Industry trend:

• For large-scale deployments, the industry has mostly settled on PPP instead of RTK because:

o PPP suits wide-area/global deployments better.

GNSS provides:

• Absolute positioning, independent of relative sensors.

• Very useful in:

o Open-sky areas (few landmarks) → vision and LiDAR have less to lock onto.
o Adverse weather → GNSS is almost entirely immune to weather.

Figure 53 (top & middle panels):

• Top: Open-sky environment → GNSS/PPP is strong even when environment lacks visual features.

• Middle: Bad weather → GNSS still works well.

7.3 PPP Limitations & IMU Role

PPP has an important limitation:

• It needs a continuous view of all satellites it uses.

• If that continuity is broken (e.g., going under an overpass, into a tunnel):

o PPP becomes unavailable

o It needs time to reconverge after signals are restored.

So when GNSS/PPP drops, we need additional sensors.

Most obvious: IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit):

• Measures 3D acceleration and rotation

• Can compute:

o Relative position
o Velocity

o Attitude

During PPP loss and reconvergence, IMU:

• Helps bridge the outage

• Maintains navigation until PPP solution is reliable again.

Sensor Fusion in AVs

Each sensor has:

• Unique strengths

• Specific weaknesses

No single sensor is enough for safe full autonomy.

Sensor fusion = using software algorithms to:

• Check the integrity of outputs from multiple sensors

• Combine valid data from:

o GNSS

o INS (IMU)

o LiDAR
o Radar

o Cameras

o Other vehicle sensors

 • Build a high-definition environmental map

• Produce a robust, reliable navigation solution

This “magic mix” allows:

• Reliability that is greater than any single sensor alone.

8.1 Other Useful Vehicle Sensors

Not just LiDAR, radar, cameras.

Modern vehicles already include many sensors for stability and control, such as:

• Wheel speed sensors (on each wheel)

• Yaw rate sensor (rotation about vertical axis)

• Steering angle sensor

• Transmission settings (gear, etc.)

• Throttle position sensor

• Brake sensors
These exist in dynamic/electronic stability control systems and became:

• Mandatory in US from 2012

• Mandatory in EU from 2014

All these sensors send data via a high-speed data bus (like CAN, etc.).

Figure 54:

• Shows typical sensor applications.

By combining just:
• Vehicle sensors + an onboard IMU, we can already get:

o Positioning solution with redundant measurements of:

▪ Velocity

▪ Turn rate

▪ Vehicle direction

8.2 GNSS vs INS in Sensor Fusion

• GNSS:
o Only real-time absolute position source.
o But can be lost (blockage, jamming).

• INS (IMU-based):
 o Always available.

o Provides relative motion (acceleration, rotation).

o But:

▪ It does not measure position directly.

▪ You must integrate:

▪ Once → from acceleration to velocity

▪ Again → from velocity to position

▪ Any small errors in acceleration/rotation:

▪ Grow with each integration

▪ Lead to rapid growth of position error (drift).

▪ MEMS IMUs also have:

▪ White noise
▪ Drift
→ Adds more error
Sensor fusion uses other sensors’ outputs to:

• Constrain error growth in INS

• Make bridging GNSS outages much more effective.

Functional Safety – Is the Position Safe to Use?

Because AVs replace human oversight, it becomes critical to:

• Ensure sensor outputs are reliable.

• Avoid making decisions based on incorrect position data.

If an AV uses a wrong position solution, it may:

• Take unsafe actions → create hazardous situations.

So before sensor fusion uses any data source, we need:

A guarantee of integrity (i.e., we can trust this data within a known error bound).

AVs will only be widely accepted when:

• The underlying technology is consistently reliable and provably safe.

Traditional Positioning Safety – Standard Deviation & Confidence Ellipse

In “classic” positioning:

• We usually use standard deviation to describe accuracy.

Standard deviation (σ):

• Measures how far individual output values are from the mean.

• Smaller σ → values are tightly clustered, few outliers.

Example:
• A GNSS receiver with:

o Many well-spread satellites

o Good geometry

• Latitude/longitude values from a fixed point will cluster around the true value.

• Scatter plot:

o Points are densely packed near the centre.

o Standard deviation is small.

Positioning is:
• An estimation problem.

• Measurements always have errors.

• Errors typically follow a Gaussian (normal, bell-shaped) distribution.

Standard deviation helps:

• Quantify expected error.

• Under Gaussian behavior, we can create a confidence ellipse.

Example:
• 3-sigma ellipse:
o Radius ≈ 3 × σ

o For Gaussian data:

▪ ~99.7% of measurements should fall inside it.

o So we can say:

“We expect the true position to be within this ellipse 99.7% of the time.”

10.1 Limitations of Standard Deviation in Safety-Critical AVs

You might think:

“If we want more safety, just make the ellipse bigger.”

But this fails if:

• Data is not Gaussian, or

• There is a systematic bias (e.g., fault).

Example shown in Figure 56:

• Multipath errors (reflected signals) create biased, non-Gaussian measurements.

• Some errors (dark blue points) lie far away from the main cluster.

• Standard deviation and Gaussian-based ellipse don’t fully capture these rare but large errors.
Also, receivers may face:

• Satellite orbit errors

• Ionospheric-related errors

• Other faults

And in AV design, we must consider all possible sensor failures over all conditions:

• This leads to billions of possible scenarios.

Standard deviation & confidence ellipse alone are not enough for high-integrity AV applications.

This is why we need protection levels.

Autonomous Positioning Safety – Protection Levels & Alert Limits

11.1 What is a Protection Level?

Protection level:

• A robust maximum error bound the system claims, with a very high confidence.

• Expressed like:
“We are 99.9999% sure the true position error is less than X metres.”

Example from the text (Figure 57):

• GNSS receiver calculates:

o 3-sigma position error: within 2 m → blue sphere.

o Protection level: 8 m at 99.9999% confidence → green region.

Meaning:

• There is only 0.0001% chance that the true position lies outside 8 m.
11.2 Dynamic Protection Levels

Protection levels are dynamic:

• They grow or shrink based on conditions:

o Satellite geometry
o Number of visible satellites

o Measurement quality

Example:
 • Drop in satellite visibility → higher uncertainty:

o Protection level may grow from 8 m → 10 m

o To maintain the 99.9999% guarantee.

If it becomes too large, it can exceed a fixed threshold called the:

• Alert limit

When protection level > alert limit:

• Position is not considered safe to use.

11.3 Stanford Diagram – Visualising Error vs Protection Level

Figure 58 shows a Stanford diagram:

• X-axis: Position error

• Y-axis: Protection level

We also have:

• A horizontal line at the alert limit (e.g., 3 m).

Normal expectation:

• Protection level is ≥ actual error, because:

o Protection level is designed to cover worst-case undetected faults.

• Correct operation:

o Points lie in a safe “normal operation” zone.

Definitions:
• Alert limit (e.g., 3 m):

o You only use the position if error is guaranteed < alert limit.

Possible situations:

1. Normal operation

o Position error < protection level < alert limit

o Safe to use.
2. Misleading information

o Position error > protection level, but protection level < alert limit

o The system thinks it is safe up to the protection level.

o Actual error is larger, but still below alert limit → misleading, but less dangerous.

3. Hazardously misleading information (worst case)

o Position error > alert limit

 o Protection level < alert limit

o System says:

▪ “Position is safe and within alert limit.”

o But true error is larger than alert limit.

o This is extremely dangerous in safety-critical AV applications.

To avoid this, high-integrity positioning systems must:

• Carefully design algorithms so that:

o Protection levels always exceed actual errors with required probability.

o And raise alarms when they exceed the alert limit.

11.4 Centralised Processing for Protection Levels & Sensor Fusion

Calculating protection levels and doing complex sensor fusion can be computationally heavy.
• Some sensors (e.g., cameras) lack enough processing power to:

o Calculate protection levels on their own.

So:

• A central system often handles:

o Protection level computation

o Sensor fusion (GNSS, INS, LiDAR, radar, cameras, vehicle sensors)

• This centralised/parallel processing:

o Keeps vehicle design more cost-effective and scalable
o Ensures that:

▪ Required protection levels are met

▪ Safe autonomous navigation is possible.

Safety-Critical Design – Functional Safety & Cybersecurity

Functional safety:

• Measures how much we can trust a system to behave safely under:

o Normal conditions

o Faulty / hazardous conditions

• Includes:

o Detecting faults

o Having mitigation actions in place

Autonomous vehicle development must:

• Consider all possible errors

• Meet automotive safety standards like:

o ISO 26262 (for on-road functional safety)

This is a huge task:

• Thousands of failure points

• Many operating conditions

Vehicles use:

• Internal data buses (like CAN, FlexRay, etc.) as a communication “nervous system”:

o Sensors and ECUs share data reliably for navigation and control.

12.1 Cybersecurity (ISO 21434)

AVs are increasingly connected externally:

• Over-the-air updates

• Remote diagnostics

• Cloud connectivity

• V2X (vehicle-to-everything) communications

This introduces:

• Risk of:
o Accidental misuse by users
o Malicious attacks (hacking, spoofing, injection, etc.)

Possible threats:

• Unanticipated user interactions

• Attackers exploiting:

o Software vulnerabilities

o Network interfaces
o Physical access points

ISO 21434 – Road Vehicles – Cybersecurity Engineering:

• Provides guidelines to manage cybersecurity risks:

o From concept

o Through design

o To deployment
12.2 Combining Functional Safety & Cybersecurity Analysis

Figure 59 shows two analysis streams:

• Functional safety analysis (ISO 26262)

• Cybersecurity analysis (ISO 21434)

Separately, each is enough for its own standard.

But a more effective development process:
Runs both in parallel, with integration points between them.

Example sequence:

1. Item Definition (functional safety)

o Defines:

▪ System boundaries

▪ Interfaces

▪ Interactions
2. This feeds into Feature Definition (cybersecurity)

o Defines:

▪ Data flows

▪ Assets

▪ Trust levels between system elements

3. Cybersecurity then does:

o Threat Analysis and Risk Assessment (TARA)

4. Functional safety does:

o Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment (HARA)

There is interdependency:

• A compromised component (cybersecurity issue) could create:

o Unsafe behaviour in other system components (functional safety issue).

These analyses together help:

• Define safety goals and security goals that the development lifecycle must achieve.

• Determine:
o Failure modes
o Safety mechanisms

o Testing metrics for safety & security.

 Closing Remarks – Unit 8

By now you should understand:

• How autonomous vehicles use:

o GNSS

o PPP

o INS

o LiDAR, radar, cameras

o Vehicle sensors

• How sensor fusion ties everything together into a high-reliability navigation system.

• How functional safety, protection levels, alert limits and cybersecurity are crucial to:
o Making AVs safe, reliable and trusted.

QUICK REVISION CHEAT – UNIT 8 (AUTONOMY)

UNIT 8 – AUTONOMY

SAE Levels:
• L0 – No automation: driver does everything.

• L1 – Assist with either steering or speed.

• L2 – Controls steering + speed, driver monitors.

• L3 – Conditional automation, system drives in some conditions.

• L4 – High automation in defined areas.

• L5 – Full automation in all conditions, no human needed.

Key Sensors:

• LiDAR – Laser time-of-flight, 3D mapping, affected by fog/rain.

• Radar – Radio time-of-flight, longer range, robust to weather, lower resolution.

• Cameras – Object recognition, relative/absolute positioning via landmarks, limited by lighting/visibility.

• GNSS + INS – GNSS absolute position; INS gives high-rate relative motion + attitude.

Accuracy:

• Standalone GNSS: ~2–5 m (95% of time).

• AVs need ~20 cm + high integrity (lane-level).

• PPP used for carrier-phase precise positioning; good in open sky & bad weather.

• PPP fails under blockage (tunnels/overpasses) → needs time to reconverge.

• IMU bridges PPP outages by providing relative motion.

Sensor Fusion:

• Combines GNSS, INS, LiDAR, radar, cameras, wheel speeds, yaw, steering angle, etc.

• Uses algorithms to cross-check and build high-definition environmental and motion model.

• Constrains INS drift and maintains navigation during GNSS loss.

Functional Safety & Integrity:

• Standard deviation + confidence ellipse work for Gaussian errors.

• 3σ (~99.7%) ellipse defines expected region but fails for non-Gaussian faults (e.g., multipath).

• Protection level = robust max error bound with very high confidence (e.g., 99.9999%).

• Alert limit = threshold; if protection level > alert limit → position not safe.

• Stanford diagram plots position error vs protection level, monitors safe/unsafe zones.

• Hazardously misleading → error > alert limit but protection level < alert limit (most dangerous case).

Architecture:
• Centralised processing often computes protection levels & fuses sensors.
• AVs must meet ISO 26262 (functional safety) and ISO 21434 (cybersecurity).

• Combine safety & security analysis streams (Item Definition, Feature Definition, TARA, HARA) to define
safety goals and mitigations.

Bottom line:

• Safe autonomy = precise GNSS/PPP + robust IMU + rich sensors + strong sensor fusion + rigorous safety
& cybersecurity engineering.
 UNIT 9 – GNSS APPLICATIONS & EQUIPMENT

“Every generation needs a new revolution.” – Thomas Jefferson

GNSS has truly revolutionised how the world works — from smartphones to satellites, from farming to
defence.

This unit covers:

• Major GNSS applications

• Real-world case studies

• Types of GNSS equipment

• Key factors for selecting GNSS receivers & antennas

GNSS APPLICATION CATEGORIES

GNSS applications are divided into these major sectors:

• Consumer

• Transportation

• Machine Control

• Precision Agriculture

• Construction

• Surface Mining
• Survey

• Aerial Photogrammetry

• Ground Mapping

• GIS (Geospatial Information Systems)

• Timing

• Marine

• Unmanned Vehicles
• Defence

Now let’s study each one clearly.

CONSUMER APPLICATIONS

GNSS is now a daily-life technology.

Smartphones

• Used for:
 o Google Maps

o Finding restaurants

o Best travel routes

• GNSS is now built inside mobile phones.

Portable Navigation Devices

• Used in:

o Cars

o Off-road driving

• Shows:

o Directions

o Speed
o Distance

o ETA (Estimated Time of Arrival)

Geocaching

• Outdoor treasure hunt game using GNSS.

• Users hide and search for “geocaches” anywhere in the world.

TRANSPORTATION APPLICATIONS

Railways

GNSS is used to track:

• Locomotives

• Rail cars
• Maintenance vehicles

• Track-side equipment

Benefits:

• Fewer accidents

• Lower delays

• Reduced operating costs

• Improved safety & capacity

Aviation

GNSS is used for:

 • Aircraft navigation

• En-route flying

• Landing operations

• Collision avoidance
• Runway approach systems

WAAS (USA):

• Provides GPS correction + integrity

• Enables precision landing

Marine Transportation

GNSS is used for:

• Ship navigation at sea

• Harbour manoeuvring

• Underwater surveying

• Buoy positioning

• Dredging

• Navigation hazard mapping

Road Transportation

GNSS is used for:

• Vehicle navigation systems

• Fleet tracking

• Freight movement prediction

• Traffic monitoring

• Driver safety improvement

PORT AUTOMATION (GANTRY CRANES)

• Shipping ports track container movement using GNSS.

• Gantry cranes:
o Huge cranes that lift containers
o Difficult to drive manually

• GNSS-based steering:
 o Keeps crane on exact path

o Improves:

▪ Productivity

▪ Safety
▪ Speed

• Faster container movement:

o Prevents food spoilage

o Ensures on-time delivery

AUTONOMOUS DRIVING

• Based on SAE Levels 0–5 (already studied in Unit 8).

• Above Level 3, vehicles:

o Observe environment

o Drive automatically

• Requires:

o High-precision GNSS

o Sensors

o Corrections
o Integrity

Early Uses:

• Campus shuttle buses

• Delivery vehicles

• Taxis

• University research projects

University of Iowa ADS Project

• Automated rural shuttle buses

• Helps elderly & transportation-challenged people

PARKING AUTOMATION – CALGARY CASE STUDY

Problem:
• GNSS-only system misplaced:

o 6–7% of parked cars daily (~1400 cars)

 o Errors up to 600 m

• Caused:

o Huge manual correction work

Solution:
• Switched to GNSS + INS

• Misplaced cars dropped to:

o 1% (<300 cars)

• Result:

o Paid system cost within 2 years

o Big efficiency improvement

SNOWPLOWS IN THE ANDES

• High mountain roads covered in snow.

• GNSS with PPP helps snowplows:

o Stay exactly on the road

o Even when driver cannot see signs or road edges

MACHINE CONTROL

GNSS is installed in:

• Bulldozers

• Excavators

• Graders

• Pavers

• Farm machinery

Benefits:

• Efficiency – Faster work, less fuel, lower costs

• Accuracy – No need for frequent survey checks

• Job Management – Remote site monitoring

• Data Management – Reports, file transfers

• Theft Detection – Virtual fencing & equipment tracking

PRECISION AGRICULTURE
Used for:

• Field mapping

• Soil sampling

• Tractor guidance
• Crop assessment

Advantages:

• Accurate fertiliser use → lower cost & pollution

• Erosion control

• Better irrigation

• Day & night farming

• Higher speed & safety

• Less fatigue

Harvesting Strawberries (Autonomous Vehicle)

• Labour shortage in farming

• Harvest CROO Robotics built autonomous strawberry harvester

• Uses:
o Two GNSS receivers with PPP

o High pass-to-pass accuracy

• Avoids crop damage

• Fully automated harvesting

AUTONOMOUS CROP SPRAYING

Traditional spraying problems:

• Backpack → chemical exposure

• Tractor → crop damage

• Aircraft → expensive

Solution:

• UAS (drones) for spraying

• Uses:

o Dual-antenna GNSS
o RTK positioning
 • Results:

o Safer

o Faster

o Cheaper

CONSTRUCTION

GNSS is used to:

• Track blade & bucket positions

• Compare with 3D digital design

• Compute cut/fill values

Two Systems:
• Indicate Systems – Operator manually adjusts

• Automatic Systems – GNSS directly controls hydraulics

Benefits:

• Fewer survey stakes

• Faster project completion

• Higher accuracy
• Less rework

SURFACE MINING

GNSS is used for:

• Shovel & haul truck routing

• Material tracking (crusher / waste / leach)

• Blast hole drilling

• Bench leveling

Multi-constellation GNSS helps:

• With deep pit signal blockages

Automated Blast Hole Drilling

Needs:
• RTK – Horizontal accuracy

• Heading – Vertical alignment

 • Multi-constellation – Signal reliability

SURVEYING

Before GNSS:

• Theodolite

• Chains

• Multiple angle & distance measurements

Now:

• One surveyor

• One day

• Using:
o RTK base + rover

• Huge time, labour & cost savings

GNSS-enabled Geophones (Seismic Surveys)

• GNSS geophones:

o Automatically know their:

▪ Position

▪ Orientation

• No pre-survey marking needed

AERIAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY & REMOTE SENSING

Earlier:
• Manual image correction

• Manual stitching

Now:

• GNSS + INS automatically:

o Transfers aircraft position to images

• Used in:
o Google Earth

o Remote sensing
o Terrain mapping
 Wildfire Mapping

• Infrared imaging + GNSS+INS

• Fire hotspots mapped on 3D terrain

GROUND MAPPING

• 360° panoramic mapping vehicles

• GNSS + IMU:

o Adds exact position & attitude

• Used for:

o Object measurement
o Infrastructure monitoring

GIS – GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS

GIS does:

• Data capture

• Storage
• Analysis

• Mapping

• Visualisation

GNSS provides:

• Accurate geographic coordinates

Applications:

• Insurance mapping
• City planning

• Utilities

• Environment studies

WEATHER PREDICTION

GNSS measures:
• Tropospheric delay
• Used to calculate:

o Water Vapour (IPW)

GNSS weather networks:

• Improve hurricane & storm forecasts

TIME APPLICATIONS

GNSS satellites have:

• Atomic clocks (nanosecond accuracy)

GNSS time synchronises:

• Power grids

• Telecom networks

• Internet

• Financial systems
• Earthquake epicenter calculations

MARINE APPLICATIONS

Used for:

• Oil rig positioning

• Pipeline & cable inspection

• Dredging

• Rescue missions

GNSS Sonobuoys

• Dropped from aircraft

• Detect ships using sonar

• GNSS transmits buoy positions to survey ship

Seafloor Mapping (Bathymetry)

• Sonar measures depth

• GNSS + INS gives:

o Vessel position
o Vertical motion correction due to waves

UNMANNED VEHICLES
Types:

• UGV – Ground

• UAV – Aerial

• USV – Surface
• UUV – Underwater

Civilian Uses:

• Disaster management

• Agriculture

• Mapping

• Wildlife monitoring

• Infrastructure inspection

Hurricane Research (NASA)

• Long-range UAVs fly into storms

• GNSS+INS tracks:

o UAV position

o Instrument orientation

Orion Parachute Testing

• GNSS+INS measures:

o Vertical velocity

• Tests safe astronaut re-entry

Unmanned Helicopter Landing on Ship

• GNSS+INS on:

o Ship

o Helicopter

• Computes:

o Relative distance
• Enables safe autonomous landing on moving deck

Medical Supply Delivery (Zipline Drones)

 • Delivers:

o Blood

o Vaccines

o Medicines
• To:

o Remote hospitals

• Saves lives

DEFENCE APPLICATIONS

Uses:

• Soldier navigation
• Aircraft navigation

• Search & rescue

• Reconnaissance

• Map creation

• Unmanned military vehicles

• Precision guided munitions

GNSS EQUIPMENT

GNSS equipment includes:

• Receivers

• Antennas

• Software

Integration:
• Separate or combined receiver + antenna

• Integrated with:

o Survey tools

o Marine sonar

o UAV sensors

GNSS EQUIPMENT SELECTION FACTORS

1. Accuracy – cm-level (survey) vs metres (hiking)

 2. Acquisition Time – Fast time-to-first-fix vs stable accuracy

3. Reliability – Always correct output

4. Availability – Works in blocked environments

5. Environmental Resistance – Water, dust, heat, altitude

6. Shock & Vibration Tolerance

7. Portability – Handheld vs industrial

8. Regulatory Compliance – FCC, RoHS, WEEE

9. Data Storage – Post-processing support

10. Size & Power Consumption

11. User Interface

12. Computation Requirements

13. Communication Capabilities

14. Future-Proofing

Trade-offs always exist between:

• Accuracy

• Speed

• Cost

• Reliability

• Availability

CLOSING REMARKS – UNIT 9

GNSS is now:

• Everywhere

• Anytime

• Essential to modern life

From:

• Smartphones → spacecraft

• Farming → finance

• Defence → disaster management

GNSS is now a taken-for-granted technology that silently runs the modern world.
Unit 10. CARTOGRAPHY

What is Cartography?

Cartography = Art + Science + Technology of Map Making

• Definition

“Discipline dealing with the conception, production, dissemination and study of maps.”

• Ancient roots

o Started with prehistoric cave drawings showing hunting areas, surroundings etc.

o Early maps drawn on cave walls, animal skins, trees, leaves, clothes, paper, metal plates.

• Evolution

o From crude sketches ➝ to mathematically precise maps of Earth + celestial bodies.

• Interdisciplinary nature

o Uses: physics, maths, geometry, geography, geodesy, surveying, engineering, computer

tech.

Think of cartography as “visual language of geography”.

2. Why Study Cartography?

We see maps everywhere – atlases, textbooks, Google Maps, apps – but:

• How are these maps actually planned & made?

• Cartography helps us understand:

1. Nature & scope of maps.

2. History & development of mapping.

3. Cognition (how we understand space).

4. Communication (how we show that understanding).

5. Earth’s shape challenge (sphere → flat map).
6. Scales & projections for accurate representation.

3. History & Development of Cartography

3.1 Ancient Period (Up to 600 AD)

• Materials: cave walls, animal skin, wood, cloth, paper, metal plates.
• Key ancient cultures:
o Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks.

• Greek thinkers:
 o Aristotle, Anaximander, Hecateus, Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, Ptolemy
➝ Proposed spheroidal Earth, early graticules (lat–long).

• Ptolemy’s world map:

o Showed world from 30°S to 60°N.

• Roman Peutinger Map:

o Long scroll showing roads of Roman Empire.

• Indian contributions (Vedic period 1500–500 BC):

o Scholars like Aryabhatta, Varahamihira, Bhaskara

➝ ideas about Earth’s rotation, size, circumference etc.

3.2 Medieval Period (600–1500 AD)

• Term “Cartography”:

o Coined by Viscount de Santarem

o From French: charte (map) + graphie (writing).

• Copper plate engraving & printing:

o Big jump for mass production & preservation of maps.

• Explorers’ era:

o Columbus, Marco Polo, Magellan, Drake

➝ Their travel accounts used to update world maps.

• Arab geographers:

o Advanced mathematical geography, improved accuracy.

3.3 Modern Period (1500 AD Onwards)

• Survey instruments:

o Plane table, theodolite ➝ more exact land surveys.

• Mercator’s cylindrical orthomorphic projection (1569):

o Milestone contribution for navigation.

• Post WWI (20th century):

o Aerial photography ➝ topographic mapping of inaccessible areas.

• Tech revolution (1970s–1980s onwards):

o Computers, plotters, scanners, printers

o Remote sensing, GIS, GPS, ETS, drones, satellites.

• High-res data:
 o IKONOS, QuickBird, Cartosat, LIDAR, SRTM etc. ➝ 2D & 3D maps.

• Today:

o App-based maps on phone & computer, real-time navigation.

3.4 Chronology of Indian Cartography (Institutions)

Key milestones in India:

• ~300 BC – Kautilya’s Arthashastra: land revenue concepts.

• 3rd/4th century AD – Shukra Niti: revenue from cultivated land.

• 1767 – Survey of India (SOI) established.

• 1851 – Geological Survey of India (GSI).

• 1874 – Indian Marine Survey → now National Hydrographic Office.

• 1875 – India Meteorological Department (IMD).

• 1890 – Botanical Survey of India (BSI).

• 1916 – Zoological Survey of India (ZSI).

• 1945 – Central Waterways, Irrigation & Navigation Commission → now CWC.

• 1958 – All India Soil & Land Use Survey.

• 1962 – Town & Country Planning.

• 1966 – Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS).

• 1969 – ISRO.

• 1970 – Central Ground Water Board.

• 1974 – NRSC & Central Pollution Control Board.

• 1978 – NATMO (National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organisation).

• 1981 – Forest Survey of India (FSI).

• 2005, 2008, 2019 – Cartosat series (Indian high-res mapping satellites).

4. Cognition & Communication in Cartography

4.1 Cognition (Mental Maps)

• Cognition = how we understand & imagine spatial phenomena.

• Edward Tolman (1948):

o Humans build “cognitive maps” – internal mental maps of places.

o Also called spatial cognition or mental maps.

4.2 Communication (Maps as a Language)
 • Communication = how we express that understanding to others → maps, diagrams.

• Earlier / conventional cartography:

o Cartographer decided symbols, fonts, colours.

o User = passive reader.

• Modern cartography:

o With GIS & digital maps, users can:

▪ Zoom, select layers, change symbols, modify variables.

o User = active participant → improves understanding & visualization.

5. Earth as a Cartographic Challenge

Problem: How to show a curved 3D Earth on a flat 2D map without distortion?

Analogy: Try to flatten a football or coconut shell without cutting → impossible without stretching or
tearing.
5.1 Earth as a Sphere

• Sphere: all surface points at equal distance (radius) from centre.

• Early beliefs: Earth was flat & Earth-centric.

• Pythagoras (500 BC): suggested spherical Earth.

• Eratosthenes (250 BC):

o Measured Sun’s angle at Syene & Alexandria.

o Estimated circumference ≈ 46,250 km (very close to modern ~40,075 km).

5.2 Earth as an Ellipsoid

• Later, scientists found Earth is not a perfect sphere.

• Equatorial radius (a) ≈ 6378.1 km

• Polar radius (b) ≈ 6356.8 km

• Semi-major axis (a) = equatorial radius

• Semi-minor axis (b) = polar radius

• Reason: Earth’s rotation → centrifugal force → bulging at equator.

➝ Shape = oblate spheroid / ellipsoid.

5.3 Earth as a Geoid

• Geoid: imagined wavy sea-level surface following Earth’s gravity field.
• Gravity is always perpendicular to geoid surface.

• Geoid ≠ Ellipsoid because:

 o Gravity changes slightly with:

▪ mass distribution (mountains, plateaus, plains),

▪ irregular shape.

• Gravitational pull:
o Weaker at equator, stronger at poles.

Mini-table:

Model Shape idea Use in Cartography

Sphere Perfect ball Simple calculations

Ellipsoid Squashed at poles, bulged at equator Reference surfaces, projections

Geoid Irregular, gravity-based sea level Precise height systems

6. Earth’s Rotation & Time Concepts

• Earth rotates 360° in 24 hours.

• So:

o 15° = 1 hour,

o 1° = 4 minutes.
• Velocity:

o ~1670 km/hr at equator → decreases towards poles.

• Standard Meridian:

o Chosen for each country to keep uniform time.

o Usually multiples of 7°30′.

• International Date Line (IDL):

o Decides date change.

o Areas east of IDL are ahead in time.

7. Map Scale & Representation

7.1 What is Scale?

Map Scale = Map distance / Ground distance

It shows how much Earth has been shrunk to fit on the map.
Factors affecting scale choice:

1. Size of area (world vs city).

2. Paper / screen size.

 3. Details required.

7.2 Types of Maps by Scale

• Small-scale maps (e.g., 1:10,000,000)

o Cover large areas, show few details.

o Examples: atlas maps, world maps.

• Large-scale maps (e.g., 1:10,000)

o Cover small areas, show many details.

o Examples: cadastral maps, topographic sheets.

Remember:
Large scale = large detail (zoomed in)
Small scale = small detail (zoomed out)

8. Methods of Showing Scale on a Map

8.1 Statement Scale

• Written as sentence:

o e.g., “1 cm represents 1 km”.

• Easy to understand.

• Not flexible:

o If you enlarge/reduce the map, statement becomes wrong.

8.2 Linear / Graphical Scale

• A line divided into equal portions (e.g., km).

• Often alternately shaded for clarity.

• Remains correct even after map is resized, because line scales with map.

• Very useful in printed & scanned maps.

8.3 Representative Fraction (R.F.)

• Shown as a ratio or fraction:

o e.g., 1:50,000 or 1/50,000.

• Both numerator & denominator in same unit.

o Means: 1 unit on map = 50,000 units on ground.

• Universal & flexible:
o Works in any unit system.

o Remains valid even after map enlargement/reduction.

9. Map Projections – Concept & Need

9.1 What is a Map Projection?

Map projection = mathematical / graphical transformation of Earth’s 3D surface onto a 2D flat map.

• Globe = most accurate representation (no distortion).

• Map = flat → some distortion is inevitable.

9.2 Why Do We Need Projections?

Because globes are:

• Hard to carry, store, draw on, measure from.

Maps are:

• Easy to fold, print, overlay data & analyse.

But flattening Earth creates distortions in:

• Shape

• Area

• Distance

• Direction

So different projections prioritise different properties.

9.3 Projection Methods

• Perspective projections:

o Use light source & shadow.

o Based on geometry (like projecting from globe to surface).

• Non-perspective projections:

o Use pure mathematics, not actual light/shadows.

o Designed to maintain certain properties (area, shape etc.).

10. Projection Properties

10.1 Conformal (Orthomorphic)

• Local shapes & angles preserved.

• Meridians & parallels meet at right angles.

• Scale same in all directions at a point.

• Good for navigation (e.g., Mercator).

 • But areas highly distorted in higher latitudes.

10.2 Equal-Area (Equivalent)

• Areas are shown true in size.

• Shape may be distorted but area preserved.

• Used for statistical/thematic maps (population, rainfall).

• Examples: Mollweide, Sinusoidal.

10.3 Equidistant

• Preserves distance from:

o either a point, or

o sometimes along certain lines.

• Scale not uniform in all directions.

• Useful in air-route maps.

10.4 Azimuthal

• Directions from the central point are correct.

• Useful for radio communication, seismic mapping etc.

• Includes: Gnomonic, Stereographic, Orthographic.

11. Classification of Map Projections

A. Based on Surface Used

1. Cylindrical – Earth projected on a cylinder (e.g., Mercator).

2. Conical – Earth projected on a cone (e.g., Bonne).

3. Zenithal / Azimuthal – Earth projected on a plane (e.g., Polar).

4. Mathematical – purely formula-based.

B. Based on Properties Preserved

• Equal Area
• Conformal

• Equidistant

• Azimuthal

C. Based on Construction Method

• Perspective (with light source).

• Non-perspective (formula-based).

• Mathematical.
D. Based on Position of Tangent/Contact Surface

• Polar (touching at pole).

• Equatorial (touching at equator).

• Oblique (touching somewhere in between).

11.1 Developable Surfaces

Surfaces that can be unrolled / flattened without tearing:

• Cylinder → Cylindrical projection.

• Cone → Conical.

• Plane → Zenithal/Azimuthal.

11.2 Perspective Zenithal Types (by light source)

• Gnomonic: light at centre of globe.

• Stereographic: light on opposite side of contact point.

• Orthographic: light at infinite distance (parallel rays).

11.3 Limitations of Projections

• No projection is perfect.

• You must choose what to preserve:

o Shape? Area? Distance? Direction?

• Projection chosen depends on map purpose:
o Navigation, thematic, world map, regional map, etc.

12. Cylindrical Projections (Simple & Mercator)

12.1 Concept of Cylindrical Projection

Imagine:
Globe inside a cylinder → project meridians/parallels onto the cylinder → unroll cylinder → flat map

• Meridians: straight vertical lines.

• Parallels: straight horizontal lines.

• They intersect at right angles.

• Distortion increases away from equator.

• True scale only along equator.

• Poles cannot be shown properly.

Limitations:

• Heavy exaggeration towards poles.

• Only a narrow equatorial belt is accurate.

12.2 Construction Methods (General)

1. Mathematical:

o Uses trigonometric formulae.

o More accurate, used in advanced work.

2. Graphical:

o Uses geometry & spacing.

o Easier for manual drawing, approximate.

12.3 Simple Cylindrical Projection

Properties

• Meridians & parallels:

o Both equally spaced straight lines.

o Intersect at 90°.

• Scale true along equator, distorted elsewhere.

• Not equal-area or conformal.

• Distortion increases towards poles.
Uses

• Good for equatorial regions:

o e.g., Africa, South America.

• Not suitable for:

o High latitudes / global mapping (shape & area badly distorted).

Construction idea (what you need to remember)

• Choose scale, compute globe radius for that RF.

• Compute equator length on map = 2πR.

• Decide interval of meridians (e.g., every 10°).

o Divide equator length into equal parts → spacing for meridians.

• Decide interval of parallels (e.g., 10°).

o Vertical spacing from equator is also fixed (for simple cylindrical).

 • Draw:

o One horizontal line (equator).

o One vertical central meridian.

o Mark and draw all meridians & parallels using the calculated spacing.
There is also a graphical way (using a small circle & projected grid), but concept remains same.

12.4 Mercator’s Projection (Special Cylindrical – Conformal)

Main properties:

• Parallels: straight, parallel, same length as equator.

• Meridians: straight, parallel, perpendicular to equator.

• Spacing of parallels increases with latitude → poles never shown.

• Conformal: local shapes preserved; angles preserved.

• Scale true along equator or along certain standard parallels.

• Rhumb lines (loxodromes):

o Any straight line on Mercator map = constant compass bearing.

o Super useful for navigation.

Advantages / Uses

• Great for world maps in atlases.

• Widely used to show:

o Ocean currents
o Temperature

o Rainfall

o Wind direction

• Very useful for marine navigation.

Construction idea (steps summarised)

1. Choose RF → compute radius R.

2. Decide latitude & longitude extent and interval (e.g., every 20°).

3. Compute spacing of meridians on equator:

o Divide equator length (2πR) by number of degrees.

4. Compute spacing of parallels using Mercator formula:

o Uses logarithm & tangent of (90° + φ)/2 for each latitude φ.

o Gives central meridian distances for each parallel.

 5. On drawing sheet:

o Draw equator and central meridian at 90°.

o Mark divisions east–west on equator for meridians.

o Mark north–south distances on central meridian for parallels.

o Draw straight lines through marks to form grid.

6. Label all latitudes, longitudes, and write RF.

You don’t need to memorise the full log-tan table – just know concept + why spacing increases.

13. Maps – Meaning, Types & Significance

13.1 What is a Map?

• Word from Latin “mappa” = cloth / cover.

• Early maps drawn on cloth, leaves etc.

• Definitions:

o Stamp (1968): map is a picture of a piece of country drawn on a flat surface.

o Monkhouse (1971): representation of Earth’s features on a plane, to scale.

Essentials of a good map:

• Scale

• Direction
• Symbols

• Selectivity (only important features)

• Generalisation (simplifying reality)

Map vs Photo:

• Map = symbolic, selective, emphasises patterns.

• Photograph = shows everything, no selection or symbolisation.

13.2 Evolution of Maps (Again, focused on “Maps” section)

• Ancient:

o Egyptians: maps for revenue & administration.

o Greeks: spherical Earth ideas, early projections (Eratosthenes, Ptolemy).

• Medieval:

o Arab cartographers advanced mapping.

o Roman Peutinger Table = road map.

 • 15th–16th century:

o Rediscovery of Ptolemy’s work.

o Map publishing in Europe.

• Modern:
o Cassini survey in France (national mapping).

o Great Trigonometrical Survey of India (1802).

o Now: aerial photogrammetry, remote sensing, GIS.

• India today:

o Survey of India, NATMO, NRSC etc. handle various types of mapping.

13.3 Types of Maps

Based on Scale
• Large-Scale:

o Cadastral maps (1:500–1:5,000): property, plots, revenue.

o Topographic maps (1:50,000–1:250,000): relief, drainage, roads, settlements.

• Small-Scale:

o Atlas maps: world or continent, simplified.

o Wall maps: classrooms, bold & colourful.

Based on Purpose
• General-purpose maps:
o Show many features: physical + cultural.

o e.g., reference maps.

• Thematic maps:

o Focus on one theme: population, rainfall, soil, land use etc.

• Special maps:

o For visually impaired, children, or specific perceptual needs.

Major Categories by Content

1. Physical / Natural maps:

o Relief, geology, climate, soil, vegetation.

2. Cultural maps:

o Political boundaries, military, social (language, religion), land use.

3. Specialised maps:
 o Distribution maps: dot, choropleth, isopleth.

o Astronomical maps: sky, stars.

o Economic maps: resources, industries, trade.

13.4 Significance of Maps

• Help visualise spatial relationships:

o distance, direction, patterns, clusters.

• Crucial for:

o Planning & administration (land use, infrastructure, resource allocation).

o Education & research (core tool in geography).

o Military & navigation (strategy, routes).

o Tourism & advertising (guide maps).

o Disaster management (risk, hazard, response mapping).

• A society with more & better maps is often:

o More organised, technologically advanced, higher living standard.

14. Development Trends in Modern Cartography

14.1 Evolution of Modern Cartography

Modern cartography has 3 key aspects:

1. Descriptive – how maps look (symbols, colours, layout).

2. Analytical – using maps to analyse data & make decisions.

3. Perspective – how maps reflect power, politics, social issues.

Drivers:

• Technology: AR, ML, 3D mapping.

• Society: climate change, social justice, inequality.

Interdisciplinary:
Geography + Computer Science + Design + Data Analytics.

14.2 Technological Drivers

• Digital Mapping / GIS:

o Public access → everyone can make maps.

• 3D Mapping:
 o Using LiDAR & high-res imagery for cities, planning.

• Augmented Reality (AR):

o Data overlaid on live camera view.

• Machine Learning (ML):

o Automatic feature extraction (e.g., land use classification).

14.3 Descriptive Aspects – Then vs Now

• Elements:

o Scale, projection, symbols, labels, legend etc.

• Timeline:

o Medieval pictorial maps ➝

o Scientific era: standard contours & symbols ➝

o Now: user-centred digital design.

Shifts:

Old (Traditional) New (Modern)

Static paper maps Dynamic, interactive web maps

Same content for all Customised content (tourism, traffic)

Manual drawing & symbol Automated / AI symbolisation

Result: maps are more clear, accessible, personalised.

14.4 Analytical Aspects

• Maps now used for data analysis & decision-making.

• Tools:
o GIS

o Spatial statistics & modelling

• Evolution:

o From simple thematic maps ➝ to real-time dashboards.

• Examples:

o Disease spread mapping.

o Land-cover change detection.

o Economic patterns.

Modern analytical tools:

 • Spatial econometrics – e.g., mapping housing price patterns.

• Big data mapping – e.g., Global Forest Watch for deforestation.

• Time-series mapping – landcover change over years.

• Web mapping platforms – e.g., ArcGIS Online for collaborative analysis.

14.5 Machine Learning in Cartography

• Example: Land use classification.

• Technique: Support Vector Machines (SVMs) etc.

• Process:

1. Train AI model on satellite imagery.

2. System auto-classifies areas into residential, commercial, agriculture etc.

• Impact:
o Helps monitor urban growth, conflict zones, planning.

14.6 Perspective Aspects – Critical Cartography

• Maps are not neutral → they can reflect power & politics.

• Critical cartography:

o Studies how maps represent colonial power, bias, inequality.

• Participatory mapping:
o Local communities co-create maps using their own knowledge.
o Example: rural India mapping water scarcity; used for policy & planning.

• Counter-cartographies:

o Activist maps showing:

▪ gentrification,

▪ oil drilling impact,

▪ racial inequality.

14.7 Geo-visualization & Big Data

• 3D modelling: e.g., urban planning labs.

• Real-time dashboards: e.g., hurricane tracking by NOAA.

• Global Forest Watch:

o Uses satellites + ML to create real-time deforestation alerts.

 o Used for conservation & law enforcement.

14.8 Future Trends

• Ethical AI: avoiding bias in automated mapping.

• Climate cartography:

o Maps of sea-level rise, carbon emissions, hazard zones.

• Neural Radiance Fields (NeRFs):

o Almost photo-realistic 3D environments from images.

• Stronger focus on:

o Social justice, public health (e.g., COVID maps),

o SDG tracking, infrastructure gaps, inequality.

14.9 Indian Advances & Societal Impact

• Key agencies:

o Survey of India, NRSC, NATMO.

• Applications:

o Resource mapping, thematic atlases, planning tools.

• Cartography now crucial for:

o Public health (epidemic tracking),

o Sustainability (SDGs),
• Social Justice: Mapping inequality/infrastructure gaps.
• Public Health: Disease outbreak visualization (e.g., COVID-19).
• Sustainability: SDG progress tracking.

Key Trends

• Descriptive: User-centric digital interfaces.

• Analytical: AI-driven spatial analytics.
• Perspective: Community-led + critical approaches.
• Unifying Theme: Technology enabling dynamic, inclusive, and actionable maps.