DEVELOPMMENT

STUDIES – GST 201

FOR BA YEAR 2 OSWARD VEDASTO

Semester 1
vosward65@[Link]
2024-2025
Course contents
1. The nature of development, meaning and theories of
development
• Definition of Development
• Objectives of Development
• Basic components of Development
• Indicators of Development
2. Theories of Social Development
• Modernization Theories
• Dependence Theories
• Neo-liberalism
• World Systems Theories
Course contents
3. Gender and Development
• Basic gender concepts: sex, gender, gender relations, gender equality and
equity, gender empowerment.
• Introduction to contending feminist theories.
• Gender construction: family, community, work place, religion, education,
mass media etc.
• Gender deconstruction: empowerment, advocacy, legislation, education,
affirmative action, reconciliation, spiritual maturation
4. Education and Development
• Types of Education.
• The role of Education in social-economic development of society.
• The 8 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
• The 17 sustainable Development Goals.
Course contents
5. Environmental Education and Development
• The meaning of the term environment
• Define environmental degradation
• Global environmental crisis
• Causes of environmental degradation
• Effects of environmental degradation
• Types of environmental problems facing Tanzania
• The importance of natural resources in Tanzania
6. Historic roots of African development and underdevelopment
• Mercantilism
• colonialism
• Neo-colonialism
Course contents
7. Roles of local regional and international organizations in
development
• NGOs, local and international organizations
• U.N
• African Union (AU)
• CBOs
• GATT, World Bank, IMF
8. Globalization and Development
• What is Globalization?
• Advantages and disadvantages of globalization.
• Global Market and development.
• Global economic situations: Socialist and Capitalist economy.
Course contents
9. Socio, political and-economic development in
Tanzania
• Health and disease control;
• Reproductive Health and Related services, STD, HIV/AIDS.
• Culture and Religion
• Political pluralism.
• Mass media
• Agricultural, educational,
• Industrial, technological, transport, Mining, tourism
sectors, etc
Introduction
Definition of Development Studies
• Is a branch of social science/an academic discipline
concerned with the study of changes in societies,
economies and institutions of the third world.
• DS course uses an interdisciplinary approach to
examine development processes and provides a
critical tools of analysis
• It is aimed at providing understanding of the
dynamics of socio-economic and political
development in the third world and Africa in
particular.
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Introduction
Why Development Studies?
• Understanding various perspectives on development theories
is vital to acquire in-depth understanding of Africa’s
development problems and challenges.

• DS provides an effective understanding of the process of

development which is vital if Tanzania and other third world
countries are to progress and overcome underdevelopment

• As academicians we need to formulate concrete strategies

relevant for the development of our nation

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Introduction
Definition of Development
• Development is multidimensional process that involves
major changes in social structures popular attitudes, and
national institutions.

• It is the acceleration of economic growth, reduction of

inequality and the eradication of absolute poverty.

• The change should cover the entire social system

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Introduction
Definition of Development
• Rodney, W defined development at the level of individual
as:
• the increased skill and capacity
• greater freedom
• creativity
• self-discipline
• responsibility and
• material well-being.

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Introduction
Objectives of Development
• The objectives of development are:
• To eradicate or reduce poverty
• To promote economic growth by improving income levels and
employment opportunities
• To ensure social equality and justice – equal access to opportunities,
resources and rights.
• To promote sustainable development through responsible use of
resources to meet present and future needs.
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Introduction
Objectives of Development
• To improve access to quality education (education and literacy)
• To protect environment: implementing strategies that protect ecosystems
and mitigate climate change.
• Improving health through reducing health disparities by improving
healthcare access.
• To build and maintain necessary infrastructures such as roads, schools,
hospitals, etc.
• To encourage active participation in governance and decision-making
processes for marginalized communities (empowerment and participation).
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Basic Components of Development
Economic Development
• A society develops economically as its members
increase (jointly) their capacity to deal with their
environment.
• Economic development process should ideally
• yield economic growth;
• improve quality of life and an equitable distribution of
resources
• Also increase the capacity of economy to deal with its
socio-economic and environmental problems.
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Basic components of development
Main Objectives of Economic Development
• The main objectives of economic development are
• to reduce/eradicate poverty
• provide opportunities for employment and personal
advancement
• provide basic needs and
• narrow the income disparities.

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Basic components of development
Social development
• Socially, development is viewed as the process of human progress.
• Social development involves equal access to essential basic services
and opportunities
• Services such as education, health, easy communications, recreation
and a job.

Political development
• Involves democracy and freedom of the individual to participate in politics.
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Basic components of development
Cultural development
• Cultural development involves promoting the preservation
and enhancement of cultural heritage, values and diversity.

• It helps in fostering social cohesion and identity.

Technological development

• Involves advancements in technology, innovation and

infrastructures that improve productivity and quality of life.
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Indicators of Development
• Indicators of development are metrics used to measure
the progress of a country or region in terms of economic,
social and environmental wellbeing.
• The indicators of development include:
Economic Growth
• Economic growth is the key indicator of development.
• It refers to the increase in real Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
of a nation adjusted for inflation, usually measured in one year.
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Indicators of Development
• GDP is the total monetary value of all goods and services
produced within a country in a specific period, usually a
year.
• To evaluate how economic growth can feed into economic
development the growth rate of GDP per capita is used.
• GDP per capita divides the GDP of a country by its total
population.
• GDP per capita represents the average economic output
per person rather than using overall output.

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Indicators of Development
• The formular for GDP per capita is:
• GDP per capita= GDP/Population
• For people’s incomes on average to increase over time,
the GDP growth rate must exceed the rate of population
growth.
Literacy, education, and skills
• Literacy, education, training and skills, and opportunities
for all members of society to increase their capacities.

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Indicators of Development
Health
• Life expectancy, maternal and infant mortality, quality of
life,
and the levels of health care available in situations of
morbidity.
Income and economic welfare –
• High levels of employment, high incomes per capita and
increased GNP, with appropriate corrections for
environmental protection and for income equity.

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Indicators of Development
Choice, democracy, and participation
• (participation in social and economic affairs, with fair
economic rewards,
• the availability of reasonable choice, and participation in
the democratic process)
• Life expectancy, maternal and infant mortality, quality of
life, and
• the levels of health care available in situations of
morbidity.

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Indicators of Development
Technology
• The capacity to develop technological innovations and to make
technological choices.
Social Indicators of development
• Size, growth, and structure of population
• Determinants of population growth includes data on fertility
and infant mortality.
• Labor force, education and illiteracy.
• Natural resources, income and poverty, expenditure on food,
housing, fuel and power,
• Transport and communication and
• Investment in medical care and education.
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Indicators of Development
Cultural indicators of development
•They are difficult to quantify but some of
indicators proposed include:
• Attitudes and approaches to support learning,
innovation, wealth creation, and social
development.

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Human Development
Human development
• Refers to the process of enlarging peoples’ choices
• To lead a long and healthy life,
• Acquire knowledge,
• Have access to the resources needed for a decent standard of
living
• Acquire political, economic and social freedom to
opportunities for being creative and productive and
• Enjoying personal self respect and guaranteed human rights.

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Human Development
Components of human development
• To achieve human development the following
components are essential:
(i) Productivity
• People must be enabled to increase their productivity and
• To participate fully in the process of income generation and
remunerative employment.
• Economic growth is therefore a subset of human development
model.
• (ii) Equity – people must have access to equal
opportunities.
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Human Development
Components of human development
• To achieve human development the following
components are essential:
(iii) Sustainability
• Access to opportunities must be ensured not only for the present
generation but for future generations as well.
• All forms of capital – physical, human, environmental should be
replenished.
(iv) Empowerment
• Development must be by people, not only for them.
• People must participate fully in the decisions and processes that shape
their lives.

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Theories of Social Development
Definition of a theory
•A theory is a statement or group of statements
established by reasoned argument based on
known facts, intended to explain a particular
fact or event.
•Theories of social development thus offer
arguments that attempt to explain the process
of social development.
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Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
•Refers to a body of theory that became
prominent in the 1950s and 1960s in relation
to
• Understanding issues of economic and social
development and
• In creating policies that would assist economic
and social transitions in poorer countries.

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Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Modernization theory is a set of theories that describe
how societies transition from traditional to modern forms
of development.
• The theory posits that all societies follow a
predetermined sequence of stages,
• from agricultural to post-industrial, and
• that internal forces are the primary drivers of
development.

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Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Origin of Modernization theory
• Recently there has been a resurgence of the
Modernization school of thought led by the World Bank
and the IMF
• They identify and concentrate on problems of inefficient
allocation and utilization of resources rather than lack of
productive capacity, backward production techniques or
investment as the causes of underdevelopment.
• This is also shown to be the result of bad economic policy
framework and subsequently economic mismanagement.
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Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Origin of Modernization theory
• They recommend Economic Recovery Programmes (ERP's)
and Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP's) to
stimulate economic efficiency.
• The reality is that developing countries remain
underdeveloped while the power of international
financial institutions increases to the extent of directing
the development process.

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Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Origin of Modernization theory
• Most bourgeois argue that
• Development is a gradual change/process
• It is an advance through progressive stages from low
stage to higher stage.
• In these stages many things are involved including
markets, resources, infrastructures, organization and
investment.
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Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Rostow’s stages of development
• Professor Rostow in 1960 applied a stage approach to the
course of development and came up with stages of
economic development.
• He argues it is possible to identify stages of development
and classify society according to these stages.

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Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Rostow’s stages of development
[Link] stage
• This stage is characterized by the following features:
• Little production
• Little knowledge
• Low science and technology
• Unit of production

34
Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Rostow’s stages of development
[Link] of pre-conditions for “Take off”
• This stage is called a transitional stage
• It is characterized by the following features:
• Division of labor
• Britain was in this stage in 17th to 18thc

35
Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Rostow’s stages of development
[Link] “take off” stage
• It is characterized by the following features:
• Development of steel industry
• Technological innovation(transport)

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Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Rostow’s stages of development
[Link] to maturity
• It is characterized by the following features:
• Development of steel industry
• Nations grow politically. E.g. German, Britain, France, etc.

37
Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Rostow’s stages of development
[Link] age of high mass consumption
• It is characterized by the following features:
• Increased productivity
• Wide range choice in the market
• Free competition is the key to economic development

38
Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Rostow’s stages of development
Critique of Rostow theory
• It only deals with the obstacles of development but not
explain nature, causes and objectives of the whole
process of development.
• Rostow does not make clear the distinction between the
different stages of development he presents.

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Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Vicious Circle of Poverty theory
• This theory is attributed to Ragnar Nurkse, an Estonian-American
economist.
• He contributed significantly to development economics in the
1950s.
• According to him a society is poor because it is poor.
• A society remains poor due to self-reinforcing factors that create a
cycle of
• Low productivity
• Low savings and
• Low investment preventing economic growth.

40
Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Vicious Circle of Poverty theory
• A society remains poor due to self-reinforcing factors that
create a cycle of
• Low productivity
• Low savings and
• Low investment preventing economic growth.
• Low capital
• Low Consumption
• Limited domestic market
• Low capacity

41
Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Vicious Circle of Poverty theory
• A society with low income has both low levels of savings
and low levels of consumption.
• The low level of savings means the low investment,
• While the low levels of consumption means not enough
market to induce investments even if the capital for
investment were available.

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 Vicious Circle of Poverty theory
Low income

Inability to - Low saving

productive capacity - Low consumption

- Low investment
- Lack of markets

43
 Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Vicious Circle of Poverty theory
• The low investment in turn means little ability to expand
productive capacity that results in low incomes in the
economy
• According to Nurkse the backward countries have failed
to enjoy the stimulating effects of the manufacturing
industry because of limitation of the domestic market
for manufactures articles.
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 Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Vicious Circle of Poverty theory
• The way out of this circle is
• To enlarge the market
• Application of capital in a wide range of different industries
• Application of massive and balanced investment programme
for growth to occur
• putting emphasis on domestic savings and the role of the
state for balanced growth
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 Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Assumptions of the Vicious Circle of Poverty theory
• Traditional societies will develop as they adopt more
modern practices.
• Modern states are wealthier more powerful and that
citizens enjoy a higher standard of living
• Traditional religious beliefs and cultural traits usually
becomes less important

46
 Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Assumptions of the Vicious Circle of Poverty theory
• Internal factors in nations such as
• Illiteracy
• Traditional attitude of population,
• Low division of labor,
• Lack of communication and infrastructure
• Corruption are responsible for underdevelopment
• The country is able to develop economically by focusing
on its own resources.
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 Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Vicious Circle of Poverty theory
The relevance of Nurkse’s Theory
• The theory provides a structural explanation for why some
countries struggle to escape poverty highlighting factors such
as low income, low productivity, lack of investments
• It guides policy makers on areas needing intervention to break
the poverty circle such e.g. increasing access to education,
healthcare and infrastructure to improve productivity and
income levels
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 Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Vicious Circle of Poverty theory
The relevance of Nurkse’s Theory
• It underscores the role of external support e.g. technology
transfer, private investment, foreign aid.
• It encourages a focus on holistic, sustainable approaches to
lift people out poverty
• It applies to poverty cycles within communities or individuals
explaining why those with fewer resources have limited access
to education, healthcare and opportunities.
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 Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Vicious Circle of Poverty theory
Criticism of Nurkse’s Theory
• There is little doubt that third world countries,
particularly those in Africa, are locked in a vicious circle
of poverty
• The historical causes of poverty in the third world
countries are not underlined by Nurkse’s theory.
• A realistic way out of this vicious circle is also not
provided by Nurkse's theory.
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 Theories of Social Development
Modernization Theory
• Vicious Circle of Poverty theory
Criticism of Nurkse’s Theory
• The theory ignores the reality of underdeveloped countries
characterized by dependent economies, which makes it
impossible to create an environment for massive investment
and balanced growth.
• Thus, Nurkse's theory, only succeeds in indicating the extent
of poverty or backwardness of the underdeveloped countries
• it throws very little on our understanding of the causes of
poverty.
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 Theories of Social Development
[Link]-Marxist (Dependency )Theory
• The dependency theory emerged as a reaction of
modernization theory which held that societies progress
through similar stages of development.
• It argues that underdevelopment is not a stage
• Underdevelopment is a result of historical exploitation by
developed countries over developing countries.
• It argues that resources flow from a periphery of poor
and underdeveloped states to a core of wealthy states
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 Theories of Social Development
[Link]-Marxist (Dependency )Theory
• Poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched as poor
states integrated into world system.
• The central argument of dependency school is that
dependency generates underdevelopment
• Dependency is the result of capitalism.
• Economic activity in the rich states often led to serious
economic problems in the poor states.
• Poor states export primary commodities to the rich states who
then manufacture products out of those commodities sell
them back to the poor states.
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 Theories of Social Development
[Link]-Marxist (Dependency )Theory
• Developed countries maintain economic dominance through:
• trade imbalances
• resource extraction and
• political influence keeping poorer nations in a state of
dependence.
• For poor countries to develop:
• they require breaking free from the dependency structure and
focus on internal growth and local industries.
• Also, they should not rely on exports to rich countries.
54
 Theories of Social Development
Criticism of Neo-Marxist (Dependency )Theory
• It has been criticized by free market economists
• Corruption. State owned companies have higher rate of
corruption
• Lack of competition

55
 Theories of Social Development
World Systems Theory
• The theory was developed by Immanuel Wallerstein.
• This theory builds on dependency theory however,
adding a global perspective.
• It divides the world into three types of economies:
• Core countries
• Semi-periphery countries and
• Periphery countries

56
 Theories of Social Development
World Systems Theory
Core countries
• These are highly industrialized,
• Have strong economies and
• Hold political power.
Semi periphery countries
• These act as intermediaries with mixed characteristics such as
• Demonstrate some industrial capacity
• They have moderate economic development
• They engage in manufacturing and that is export oriented
production
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 Theories of Social Development
World Systems Theory
Core countries
• These are highly industrialized,
• Have strong economies and
• Hold political power.
Semi periphery countries
• However, they have limited political influence
• They may participate in international trade organizations and
political alliances.
• But they often subject to pressures from core countries
58
 Theories of Social Development
World Systems Theory
Periphery countries
• These are less developed and often exploited for
resources
• They have weak political power or influence
• They are economically dependent and reliant to core
countries
• Limited industrialization and
• Underdeveloped infrastructures
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 Theories of Social Development
World Systems Theory
Assumptions
• Global division of labor driven by capitalism
• Countries are economically interdependent but unequal
in terms of power and wealth.
• Economic exploitation and dependency
• Long term inequality and cyclical change.
• It focuses on global system and not individual states.
60
 Theories of Social Development
Neo-Liberal (Neo-Classical) Theory
• Refers to an economic and political ideology that emphasizes
• a free market capitalism
• minimal government intervention and
• privatization as key to economic growth and development.
• The theory emerged in the late 20th century.
• The theory’s proponents include Friedrich Hayek, Milton
Friedman, Ronald Reagan, Margaret Thatcher and David
Harvey, Adam Smith and David Ricardo
• It became influential towards the end of 1970’s fired by
• the election of Magreth Thatcher in the UK and
• Renald Regan in the USA.
61
 Theories of Social Development
Neo-Liberal (Neo-Classical) Theory
• The theory has influenced global economic policies
particularly in developing countries through the IMF and WB.
• Its emergence was a response to the rise of government
intervention in economies especially after the great economic
depression
• It emerged as a modern adaptation of classical liberalism
which emphasizes
• free markets
• private property and
• limited government intervention.
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 Theories of Social Development
Neo-Liberal (Neo-Classical) Theory
Assumptions of Neo-liberal Theory
• It bases on free market and against government intervention in
those markets
• Adam Smith argues that free trade will ultimately benefit all
members of the society.
• It assumes that privatizing public services make them more
efficient by introducing competition and reducing government
costs.
• It argues that limited government intervention
• maintains property rights
• enforces contracts and
• provides a stable environment for markets.
63
 Theories of Social Development
Neo-Liberal (Neo-Classical) Theory
Assumptions of Neo-liberal Theory
• It calls for the government to accumulate capital by removing
trade barriers and encouraging foreign direct investments.
• Those who became wealthy do so by hard work while those
who became poor do so by laziness
• It allows individuals decision making to occur without
government interference
• So neo classical theory is a weapon in the extension of a
transnational firm led globalization process.
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 Theories of Social Development
Neo-Liberal (Neo-Classical) Theory
Relevance or Strength of Neo-liberal Theory
• It supports the idea that individuals should be
responsible for their welfare to enhance personal
accountability and economic motivation.
• It recognizes the importance of advance markets or free
trade to economic development.
• The World Bank shifted its basic needs approach to a
neo-classical approach in 1980.
65
 Theories of Social Development
Neo-Liberal (Neo-Classical) Theory
Relevance and Strength of Neo-liberal Theory
• Neo classical policies have been adopted world-wide
particularly in the global south to stimulate economic growth
through
• trade liberalization and
• attracting foreign investments.
• By encouraging competition, the theory aims
• to drive innovation
• increase productivity and
• enhance quality goods and services.
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 Theories of Social Development
Neo-Liberal (Neo-Classical) Theory
Relevance and Strength of Neo-liberal Theory
• By promoting privatization, the theory aims to
• reduce government debt and
• promote fiscal responsibility encouraging countries to focus
on economic efficiency.

67
 Theories of Social Development
Neo-Liberal (Neo-Classical) Theory
Criticism of Neo-liberal Theory
• It will continue to have a poor direction of economic growth in
developing nations.
• It fails to benefit the population as a whole
• Neo classical fails to address developed market or free trade.
So free market does not benefit the population rather than
impoverishing them.
• It seems to benefit the capitalist economies rather than
developing nations like Tanzania.
• It fails to recognize the importance of natural resources
68
 Theories of Social Development
Neo-Liberal (Neo-Classical) Theory
Criticism of Neo-liberal Theory
• It often results in reduced access to essential services for
poorer populations as these services become less
affordable.
• Its focus on deregulation can lead to environmental harm
as companies prioritize profits over sustainability.
• It forces periphery countries to open their markets which
can result to in the loss of local industries, cultures and
traditional practices.
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 Theories of Social Development
Conclusion
• Social development is complex as it is influenced by
various interconnected factors such as economic
structures, cultural values, political power and external
influences.
• From the modernization theory we learn that
development is a linear progression with societies
adapting western capitalist practices and democratic
institutions.
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 Theories of Social Development
Conclusion
• Dependency and world systems theories highlight the
challenges of inequality and exploitation within a global
capitalist system.
• As such they suggest that some countries develop at the
expense of others.
• While neo-liberal theory emphasizes the role of free
markets and limited government in promoting growth.

71
 Gender and Development
Introduction
• Inequality and inequity that loomed since the
early of human life gave rise to questioning the
rationale for oppressive scenarios.
• The questioning culminated into the beginning
of Gender & Development science

72
 Gender and Development
Introduction
• If women and men are not equally involved in
development processes,
• development benefiting equally all members of a society
can hardly be attained.
• Thus, problem of gender imbalance has been accorded a
high priority in local and international organs.

73
 Gender and Development
Introduction
• Various UNs’ Conventions addressing improvement of
position of women with regard to inequality and inequity
i.e.
• Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination
Against Women (CEDAW),
• Beijing and African Platform of Action

74
 Gender and Development
Introduction
• In 1945, United nations Charter recognized inequality
between men and women in the spheres of:
• access to resources
• decision-making,
• access to education and
• professional opportunities and earning power

75
 Gender and Development
Introduction
• In 1970s, UNs decided to give more impetus
• To equitable development of women and men &
• Fairer division of labor between the two groups
• The period 1976-1985 was named the UN Decade for
Women
• Main objective was to remove or at least reduce
substantially,
• disparities between women’s & men’s positions.
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 Gender and Development
Introduction
• The Beijing Conference that took place in 1995 indicated
further recognition of gender & development
• Key objective was to ensure that the principles of
equality, development & peace are translated into action
for women
• The main idea was to develop & endorse strategies to
eliminate gender discrimination & promote partnership
between women & men in the 21st century.
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 Gender and Development
Introduction
The Conference came with 10 actions that should be
implemented by NGOs & governments all over the world
• Elimination of poverty among both women & men;
• Equal access to education at all levels;
• Equal access to health care, including reproductive health;
• Equal access to productive resources, including employment,
land, capital, information & technology
• Women’s full participation in decision-making at all levels in
the public & private sectors;
78
 Gender and Development
Introduction
The Conference came with 10 actions that should be
implemented by NGOs & governments all over the world
• Women’s full legal status, including owning property, sign
contracts. & receiving credit without male co-signers;
• Ending violence against women;
• Acknowledgement of women’s rights as human rights;
• Full participation of women in conflict resolution &
peace-making process; &
• Improving the girl-child well being
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 Gender and Development
Introduction
In 2000, United National Assembly promulgated 8
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
• The third goal is to Promote gender equality and
empower women
• It targeted to eliminate gender disparity in primary &
secondary education preferably by 2005 & to all
levels of education no later than 2015.

80
 Gender and Development
Introduction
Other goals included
• eradicate extreme poverty and hunger,
• achieve universal primary education,
• reduce child mortality, improve maternal health,
• combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases,
• ensure environmental sustainability, &
• develop a Global Partnership for Development
81
 Gender and Development
Introduction
• In spite of recognition, majority of development planners
did not address fully issues of equality & equity between
women and men in the development process
• In order to attain development, development planners
should consider gender issues in all development plans
• Ensuring equal, or at least equitable, rights between
women and men;
• Regarding women as agents and beneficiaries of change
& increasing opportunities for both women & men
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 Gender and Development
Introduction
• UNs has developed gender indices to measure
development internationally; these are
• Gender-related development index (GDI)
• Gender empowerment measure (GEM)
• GDI concentrates on variables such as
• productivity,
• equity, sustainability &
• empowerment as Human Development
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 Gender and Development
Introduction
• Gender empowerment measure (GEM) focuses on 3
variables
• Women’s power over economic resources so as to earn
income,
• Their access to professional opportunities, and
• their participation in political decision-making

84
 Gender and Development
Introduction
• According to UNs, the fact gender as a development
issue is better explained in the light of
• Population
• Work
• Education
• Health
• Family issues; and
• Human rights variables by comparing the situation between
women and men
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 Gender and Development
Introduction
• Thus, gender is development issues because
• Development can never be lasting and real unless gender
inequality is addressed,
• This does not simply mean inserting women into the
development process
• Because to most people ‘Gender’ is taken to be
synonymous with ‘women’ as if men have no gender!

86
 Gender and Development
Introduction
• In order to understand gender should consider both
masculinities and femininities.
• There are range of ways in which these can be expressed
& the interrelationship with other signifiers of social
difference such as
• Race, age, social class, sexuality, ability, amongst others

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 Gender and Development
Introduction
• In present times it is widely accepted that development
must be informed by gender analysis & that particular
attention must be paid to the needs of the poor.
• Thus Gender & Development come in to remove or at
least to reduce substantially, disparities between various
groups in the society
• Therefore, gender is taken to be development issue if
both women, men and other vulnerable group’s issues in
society could be well addressed
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 Gender and Development
Introduction
• Thus, there are important key concepts on gender to be
discussed first before touching other session
• First all our discussion will start with the difference
between sex & gender,
• because there is confusion in these two terminologies.

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 Gender and Development
Basic gender concepts
Sex
• Is the state of being either female or male
• Identifies the biological differences between men and
women
• Is natural and, for the most part
• Unchangeable
• Created/born male or female

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 Gender and Development
Basic gender concepts
Gender
• Social, psychological, historical, economic and cultural
construct that shows relationship
• between males and females and other member of society e.g.
children, youth, elderly, poor
• Relates to how we are perceived and expected to think and
act as women and men.
• Refers to the roles, behaviors, activities, expectations and
identities that societies and cultures consider appropriate for
men and women.
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 Gender and Development
The differences between Sex and Gender
• Sex explains biological and physical differences between
women and men.
• But gender explains social, psychological, historical,
economic and cultural relationships between women and
men
• Sex is determined by biological and physical conditions
including chromosome, external and internal genitalia,
hormonal states & secondary sex characteristics but
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 Gender and Development
The differences between Sex and Gender
• Gender is determined through perceptions of masculine &
feminine traits & roles played by women & men
• These roles have culturally been assigned to women, girls,
men & boys
• Sex is natural & cannot be changed under normal
circumstances BUT
• Gender is not natural because gender issues can change over
time through struggle and gender relations.
• Gender is learnt through primary & secondary socialization &
thru culture of particular society.
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 Gender and Development
Sex Roles
• Are invariable/ universal / unchanging characters of men
& women
• Are based on biological capabilities e.g. pregnancy,
sperm production, menarche etc.
• Therefore, sex is deemed to be natural

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 Gender and Development
Gender Roles
• Based on social expression of natural and biological
differences
• They are differences in behavior or activities that men
and women play in a society
• Gender role in societies have evolved through social,
cultural, economic and political processes
• Unlike sex roles, which can be played by either women or
men, gender roles are played by both men and women
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 Gender and Development
Gender Roles
• Roles learned change from culture to culture
• Change overtime within a given culture
• There are various gender roles such as
• Reproductive
• Productive
• Community managing roles
• Community politics role
• Cultural and religious role
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 Gender and Development
Reproductive Role
• Sex-specific such as giving birth
• Normally not paid for
• Women primarily do them
• Child bearing/rearing responsibilities and domestic
chores

97
 Gender and Development
Productive Role
• Done by both women and men for pay in cash or kind
• Productive roles include tasks related to economic activities
• Traditionally, men are expected to take on productive roles
outside the home in paid labor.
• Includes both market production with an exchange value, and
home production with actual use value but also potential
exchange value
Community managing role
• Undertaken primarily by women at the community level
• An extension of their reproductive roles
• Is voluntary unpaid work, undertaken in "free/leisure" time
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 Gender and Development
Community Politics Role
• Undertaken primarily by men at the community level
• Organizing at the formal political level
• Is generally paid work, either directly or indirectly through
status or power
Cultural and religious roles
• In many societies cultural and religious beliefs dictate specific
roles for men and women.
• Men might be assigned roles related to religious rituals and
cultural rights.
• Women may have roles of passing down traditions.
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 Gender and Development
Other Basic Concepts in Gender and Development
Access
• Refers to women’s & men’s opportunities to obtain or
use resources and services such as food, credit, land,
technologies, inputs, health, education, information,
power, etc.
Bottom-approach
• An approach of development whereby interventions are
planned & implemented by both women & men
beneficiaries
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 Gender and Development
Other Basic Concepts in Gender and Development
Access
• Refers to women’s & men’s opportunities to obtain or
use resources and services such as food, credit, land,
technologies, inputs, health, education, information,
power, etc.
Bottom-approach
• An approach of development whereby interventions are
planned & implemented by both women & men
beneficiaries
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 Gender and Development
Other Basic Concepts in Gender and Development
Disaggregated data
• Information broken down into specific categories such as
gender, age or other categories
• to reflect the different needs, priorities, activities, & interests
of women, men, &
• their access to & control over resources, services & activities
Discrimination
• Different unjust treatment based on age, sex, ability, ethnicity,
religion or other factors, rather than on individual merit.
• This leads to unequal access to resources, opportunities and
rights.
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 Gender and Development
Other Basic Concepts in Gender and Development
Disempowerment
• Any action, policy, development and/or relief program or
process through which women’s & men’s priorities,
needs and interests are further ignored.
• It means reducing their participation in decision-making
and
• Presenting an obstacle to their economic, political and
social improvement.
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 Gender and Development
Other Basic Concepts in Gender and Development
Empowerment
• It is a process by which women, men, girls & boys in
disadvantaged position are helped to
• Gain more access to knowledge, skills, resources, decision-making
power, &
• Raise their awareness & participation in development activities, &
• Reach a level of control over their own environment
• Therefore, they are able or willing to critically analyze their
situation & take appropriate action to change their status quo
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 Gender and Development
Other Basic Concepts in Gender and Development
Emancipation
• It is setting someone free, e.g. freeing women from anti-development,
cultural and social injustices

Equality
• It is the state of being equal
• Synonyms of equality are egalitarianism, likeness and parity
• Antonyms of equality are inegalitarianism, inequivalence, unlikeness &
disparity

Equity
• Is fairness, say in access to resources, division of labor, & sharing of
benefit emanating from development activities
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 Gender and Development
Other Basic Concepts in Gender and Development
Genda Equality
• Refers to women & men other member of society e.g.
children, youth, elderly, poor having equal access to
• Development resources,
• Benefits or services,
• Equal opportunities to participate in development processes
• To share equally in the control of benefits resulting from
development processes &
• Equality in having information that will enable them to know and
believe that
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 Gender and Development
Other Basic Concepts in Gender and Development
Genda Equity
• Fair distribution of resources and benefits between women,
men and other members of society e.g. children, youth,
elderly, poor, according to cultural norms and values.
OR
• Refers to men & women having fair access, participating fully
& having control of development resources & providing
opportunities to enable groups that are disadvantaged to
‘catch up’ in order to have a more just society.
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 Gender and Development
Other Basic Concepts in Gender and Development
Genda Equity
• It means men’s & women’s equality in access to
development resources, participation in development &
control of resulting benefits is their right &
• An obligation to their society in human rights, legal system,
constitutions
• No discrimination on grounds of sex

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 Gender and Development
Other Basic Concepts in Gender and Development
Genda awareness
• Recognition that women & men perform different roles
in society & therefore have different needs which must
be recognized.
Gender focus
• Refers to specifically addressing the needs of women,
men, girls, boys,& vulnerable group in the society
determined by their sex/gender.
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 Gender and Development
Other Basic Concepts in Gender and Development
Sexism
• The belief that one sex is superior to another.
• Sexism manifests as prejudicial attitudes towards one
sex, usually females.
• It also leads to discriminatory action against the
disfavored sex giving undue privilege to the favored
usually men.

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 Gender and Development
Other Basic Concepts in Gender and Development
Sexism
• Sexism is found in family and also in economic, political,
welfare and religious structures of society.
• Women are discriminated economically, it discourages
their full participation in society. Lead to loss of large
proportion of human resource (51%) for development.
• Poverty is feminized, because women become poorest of
the poor as the only way they can access resources is
through association with men (marriage)
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 Gender and Development
Other Basic Concepts in Gender and Development
Gender relations
• Refers to the interaction or relations between groups of
women and groups of men to important
• social, political, economic and cultural phenomenon in a country
or a place e.g. state, educational system, labor market or
employment etc.
• Because of the gendered demarcations of the two sexes, these
relations of men and women
• tend to be unequal, leading to gender-based injustices.
• It also affects the relations of men and women at the
household, economic, political as well as social spheres.
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 Gender and Development
The social construction of gender
(a) Socialisation: role of family, school, and mass media
• Socialisation is the process through which values, norms,
meanings are transmitted to the individuals so that they
fit into the patterns of social organization.
• Role of socialization is primarily undertaken by the family
into which the individual is born.
• Also, socialization is undertaken by other social
institutions like school, church, mass media etc.
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 Gender and Development
The social construction of gender
(a) Socialisation: role of family, school, and mass media
• Socialisation has its advantages but also disadvantages.
• For instance, it regulates behavior, promotes sharing and
a community feeling.
• However, in many of our cultures (African), socialization
does not recognize the uniqueness of individuals but
emphasizes on adaptations and adjustments (conformity)
to culture and society.
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 Gender and Development
The social construction of gender
(a) Socialisation: role of family, school, and mass media
• It is the key source of masculinity and femininity
which are enforced through
• the hierarchical, authoritarian structures of patriarchy
and
• also through gender behavior thus role modelling.
• There are sanctions for those who refuse to
conform one of which is rejection being treated as
a non-entity by the group.
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 Gender and Development
The social construction of gender
(a) Socialisation: role of family, school, and mass media
• Thus gender is social-culturally constructed and both sexes are
social-culturally conditioned to
• believe, adopt, and execute their roles and to serve society’s
expectations through these roles.
• Patriarchy therefore takes advantage of the feeble mindedness
and vulnerability of children to advance its goals.
• People then make effort to acquire gender socialization i.e.
clothing, foods.
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 Gender and Development
The social construction of gender
(b)Gender identification theory
• This is associated mainly with the psychoanalytic theory
(Sigmund Freud)
• Freud’s theory places sexuality at the center of human
development.
• In the phallic stage according to Freud, male infants are
symbolic infatuated with their mothers (the Oedipus complex).

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 Gender and Development
The social construction of gender
(b)Gender identification theory
• The male according to Freud escapes this dragnet by giving up
his mother for his first love.
• Freud argued that women’s oppression emanated from their
psyche,
• from their refusal or failure to accept the ‘God given’ role of
child bearing and
• rearing which he says starts at the phallic stage when female
infants suffer the Electra complex or Penis envy.
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 Gender and Development
The social construction of gender
(b)Gender identification theory
• This refusal made it difficult for them to enjoy sex
under their husband's repression of sex, resulting
into neurosis.
• Women then are destined to find completeness in
associating with males who have that
• which they do not have but they so much desire to
have (penis).
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 Gender and Development
The social construction of gender
(b)Gender identification theory
• It is the lack of this ‘instrument’ of power that the
woman is according to Freud the weaker sex (read
Freud’s psychosexual theory)
• Freud agues that this association lead to the birth of the
child especially a boy child, which brings about the end
of the envy.
• Ie: relationships of single mothers with their male
children, names they call them e.g. my Prince.
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 Gender and Development
The social construction of gender
Critique of Freud Gender identification theory
• The ‘penis envy’ he observed was done on his patients in
Vienna during the Victorian era (deterministic) and riddled
with male chauvinism.
• He was a prisoner of the prevailing culture in his descriptions
and interpretations of what he observed, was overly
influenced by the framework of his time.
• Freud had suffered many psychological problems including
psychosis thus was his own first patient and source of
observations (very unscientific).
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 Gender and Development
The social construction of gender
Critique of Freud Gender identification theory
• He was Jewish, at the time, Jews thanked God daily in prayer for
• not having been born female or as Gentiles Women were taken as
inferior status.
• Women on the other hand acquiesced to their inferior status by
thanking God for having created them according to His will
• He was born and brought up by an autocratic father and abused
mother.
• Suspected of having been bi-sexual. It is said that Sigmund
Freud was too sexually puritanical and
• after the passion with is his wife Martha who died rather quickly after
their wedding, he turned to men.
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 Gender and Development
The social construction of gender
(c) Cognitive Development theory- Jean Piaget
• This theory negates the reward and punishment theory
(social learning theory) which state that
• behavior that is regarded tend to be repeated while that
which is punished becomes discouraged.
• It holds that children learn from their social world
through the process, which they strive to make sense of
their environment.
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 Gender and Development
The social construction of gender
Cognitive Development theory- Jean Piaget
• It is this theory that allocates gender as a self is
spontaneously created using the cognitions made from
the environment.
• Sex becomes organizing factor – men and women each
have their roles.
• Children’s capacity to interpret the world around them
depends very much according to mental maturity.
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 Gender and Development
The social construction of gender
Cognitive Development theory- Jean Piaget
• From 18 months of age, infants actively participate in creating and
constructing their cognitive structures.
• With regard to gender children begin to stereo-type and to
organize themselves around those stereo-types, i.e., women cook
so girls cook.
• Up to 7 years, children see things and organize the traits as they
perceive them.
• At adolescence, they become more flexible in regard to things and
organize the traits as they perceive them.
• They become more flexible in regard to what men and women do.
125
 Gender and Development
The social construction of gender
Critique of Cognitive Development theory
• The theory denies or downgrades the part played by
culture in socializing the child and assumes that kinds
socialize themselves, presenting them as independent.
• Children learn a great deal about behavior by observing
and imitating those around them but this theory fails to
acknowledge this.

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 Gender and Development
FEMINIST THEORIES (FEMINISM)
• This comprises a group of theories that seek to
• describe, analyze and explain women’s and men’s
oppressions in society and
• prescribe the kind of action that should be taken to
address the situation.
• Feminism uses the experience of men and women
to provide an alternative understanding of the life.
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 Gender and Development
FEMINIST THEORIES (FEMINISM)
• It sees patriarchy as inhibiting the full potential of
human being, women and men.
• Feminism is an emerging worldview that questions
patriarchal attitudes and envisions a future in
which relationships of domination become of
mutuality.
• Feminism images God within the persons and the
community as the all-empowering Spirit.
128
 Gender and Development
Strands of feminism
(a) Religious Feminism
• By the mid 20th century, many women inspired by the insights of
feminists in the secular world, became aware that not all was well
even in within their own religions.
• These women believed that both feminist values and religious
expression were essential for full human living.
• This saw to the beginning of feminist reform movements in all
major world religions
• which in Anglican church resulted in the ordaining of women in 1976,
other churches followed with the exception of the Catholic.
• Difference with secular feminism, is concerned with theology and
the God/human relationship.
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 Gender and Development
Strands of feminism
(a) Religious Feminism
• Bible begun to be studied in the new light of feminist
insights and
• It was realized that Christ himself had preached against
patriarchal values and wanted his followers not to be guided
by them anymore.
• They set out to find God in their own experiences and by
developing new rituals or doctrine that expresses their
understanding or their relationship with God,
• sometimes wanting to express the divine in female terms
(Mother God) (see Stanton, 1985)
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 Gender and Development
Strands of feminism
(b) Moral Feminists
• Also referred to as cultural or romantic feminists whose
movement arose in the 19thc when world experienced
the full horrors of the industrial revolution with rural
families moving to cities and masses in search of work.
• Middle class women (quakers) began to organize Bible
study groups since they believed in the priesthood of all
believers despite gender roles.
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 Gender and Development
Strands of feminism
(b) Moral Feminists
• They saw men as aggressive, competitive,
rationalistic and hard hearted.
• They declared women as the more worthy sex.
• This was seen as weak because feminism was not
about replacing one oppressor with another but
freeing both from the oppressor and the oppressed
from oppression.
132
 Gender and Development
Strands of feminism
(b) Moral Feminists
• They believed that both men and women shared in the
gifts of the Spirit.
• For them salvation implies justice for all.
• However, they believed that women were morally
superior to men since they were harmonious, creative,
compassionate and holistic (integrated in character).
• Hence the need to involve them in public life.
133
 Gender and Development
Strands of feminism
(b) Moral Feminists
• They saw men as aggressive, competitive,
rationalistic and hard hearted.
• They declared women as the more worthy sex.
• This was seen as weak because feminism was not
about replacing one oppressor with another but
freeing both from the oppressor and the oppressed
from oppression.
134
 Gender and Development
Strands of feminism
(c) Secular Feminism
• Secular feminism was greatly influenced by the
European enlightenment in the 18th century.
• The enlightenment period based on faith in human kind and
reason as the only acceptable authority.
• It claimed that all human beings are endowed with faith and
reason.
• Hence it became possible to query why one sex was always
benefiting at the expense of the other.
• So, this became the benchmark for modern feminism.
135
 Gender and Development
Types of secular feminism
1. Liberal Feminism
• Sees subordination as deeply rooted in a set of customary
and legal constraints that block women’s legal entrance and
access in the public world.
• This relegates women to the domestic sphere and are
• excluded from public life,
• from the world, the world of knowledge, resources, job
opportunities, etc.
• It is based on the argument that women are less physically
capable and intellectually weaker,
• which biologically has been found not to have any basis at all.
136
 Gender and Development
Types of secular feminism
1. Liberal Feminism
• However, under patriarchy even men, especially of lower
social standing could face similar dilemma, e.g. Illegitimate
sons.
• Liberal feminism argues for the tapping of the full potential
of women rather than relegating it to the kitchen.
• John Stuart Mill in his book On subjection of Women, sought
to change the law so that
• women could vote and
• own property in marriage.
137
 Gender and Development
Types of secular feminism
1. Liberal Feminism
• Liberal feminists declared that what defined human beings was
rationality and both men and women were equally rational.
• They demanded access to higher education.
• To be accepted as equal citizens with equal rights before the law.
• They did not challenge male-centered structures of society but
they sought that women also enter such structures on an equal
footing.
• Between 1918 and 1920 women were allowed to vote in Britain,
Ireland, Germany, Austria, Poland, USA, USSR.
• By 1925 admitted to be magistrates and judges and parliament in
Britain.
138
 Gender and Development
Types of secular feminism
2. Marxist Feminism
• This theory posits that fairness and equal opportunities
cannot be attained in a class society where the wealth
produced by the powerless is usurped by the bourgeoisie.
• It argues that the oppression of women came about with the
inception of private property.
• For example, land adjudication which placed land ownership in
the hands of the male head of household.
• The way out for these feminists is communism or socialism
• in order to eradicate economic dependence of women on men
of lower class and higher class.
139
 Gender and Development
Types of secular feminism
3. Radical feminism
• This strand grew in the 1960s out of the civil rights movement.
• This theory sees patriarchy as the main oppressor of women
and some classes of men.
• Culture was its main medium.
• Patriarchy embraces power, dominance, and competition.
• It calls for the dethroning of patriarchy.
• It calls for structural change.
• It needs social-cultural institutions such as church, schools and
family to change in attitude and orientation with regard to
gender.
140
 Gender and Development
Types of secular feminism
3. Radical feminism
• The male biological makeup said to be superior to that of
females.
• The theory rejects this notion by arguing that anatomy is
destiny.
• One born female according to radical feminism still had to
learn how to be a mother.
• motherhood is learnt not innate.
• The patriarchal structures were also found in the church,
politics, industry, medicine, home and bedroom
141
 Gender and Development
Types of secular feminism
3. Radical feminism
• In all these areas women were being treated as servants
of men.
• Radical feminists are seen as men-hating, aggressive and are
responsible for the ‘bad name’ feminism sometimes has.
• This caused change in the thinking, to be more inclusive
and holistic.
• The aim was to achieve maturity between
• men and women
• to free both from gender roles and
• allow them to be treated according to their giftedness.
142
 Gender and Development
Types of secular feminism
4. Existentialist feminism
• Existentialism philosophy is humanistic in orientation and
emphasizes on
• the respect for individual subjective experience,
• the respect for individual’s freedom, choice, autonomy and
meaning.
• This philosophy supports the need to allow individuals to
• grow and develop a self-concept untainted or
• uninfluenced by the social-cultural environment.
• This brand of feminism sees this as a necessary prerequisite for
self-actualization.

143
 Gender and Development
Types of secular feminism
4. Existentialist feminism
• This theory is against the definition of women as the ‘other’ and
man as ‘self’
• The free-determining one who defines his own existence and
that of women.
• It agitates for the need for women to be left alone to define
themselves
• rather than being seen as an aberration from the norm which
seen to be the male leading to their definition as the ‘other.’
• Women struggle should be from the point of view of being
selves in their own right.
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 Gender and Development
Gender deconstruction
• Refers to processes and activities aimed at
• re-socializing individuals and society for purposes of
behavior and
• attitude change, i.e. deconstructing sexism and its
negative impacts on development.
• Deconstructive theory questions and challenges the
binary understanding of gender, which posits that
• there are only two distinct and fixed gender categories:
male and female.
145
 Gender and Development
Gender deconstruction
It argues that:
• Gender is not a fixed or stable category
• Gender is a performance - individuals perform gender through
their behavior, appearance, and language.
• Gender is shaped by cultural practices
• Gender is a social construct - created and maintained through
cultural practices and power dynamics.
• Gender is political – it has social and political implications
• Gender can be deconstructed - individuals can create new
understandings and practices around gender identity.
146
 Gender and Development
Gender deconstruction
• It seeks to deconstruct and challenge the traditional
assumptions and meanings associated with gender,
including
• the social, cultural, and political constructs that shape
gender identity.
• This helps create a conducive environment for
thinning of gender and equality and equity gaps.
• The major approaches include, empowerment,
education, legislation, etc.
147
 Gender and Development
Major approaches of gender deconstruction
Empowerment
• These are strategies and activities aimed at
• increasing personal, interpersonal or political power so that
individuals, families and communities can take action to
improve their situation.
• Empowerment is used as a means of positively altering
gender relations rather than empowering one against the
other.
• It also helps them recognize the benefits to themselves
and to society through the empowerment of the
powerless. 148
 Gender and Development
Major approaches of gender deconstruction
Empowerment
• However, this has been noted to be the most
difficult part of gender empowerment because of
resistance arising from a belief that males are
privileged by the status quo and do not need
empowerment.
• Women empowerment is also known to bring about
feelings of insecurity in men.
• Both gender need to agree to the need to change
and jointly steer change in a direction agreed upon.
149
 Gender and Development
Major approaches of gender deconstruction
Advocacy
• This is the representation of the situation, status, position of the
powerless to the powerful in order to bring about social
structural change.
• Also to change attitude, to give space to the powerless to affirm
their entitlement to a better life.
• However, there is a strong view amongst scholars that advocacy
should not be carried out only by women because
• then gender issues are easily reduced to women’s issue.
• Hence, it is important men also to undertake this role because
• there are many men who understand the crux of the argument in
gender and development.
150
 Gender and Development
Major approaches of gender deconstruction
Legislation
• It includes law reforms and putting in place the
necessary reconstructions e.g. International laws
include
• international human rights laws emphasizing and
• protecting the rights of women.
• In Tanzania there are recent legal enactments such
as children’s Act, Free and compulsory primary
education etc.
151
 Gender and Development
Major approaches of gender deconstruction
Legislation
• However, it is important to note that not all things can be corrected
through legislation but just one way which must be combined with
other methods.
• A commonly sited phenomenon used to demonstrate this is FGM,
which is known to go underground when legislated against.
• Those working for the eradication of FGM argue that this is but
symptom and not actually the real problem.
• Programmatic work aimed at FGM eradication should include
• empowerment
• availing education and
• employment opportunities for women.

152
 Gender and Development
Major approaches of gender deconstruction
Education
• Conscientization, awareness creation, research and
dissemination, carried out
• to facilitate individual and
• collective challenging of ideologies sustaining gender
inequality, i.e. both in the subordinate as well as the
powerful.
• This is usually expected to translate into
empowerment of both.
153
 Gender and Development
Major approaches of gender deconstruction
Education
• Research and dissemination helps in
• documenting the existing injustices
• their roots causes
• their losses to individuals, groups and
• society in general.
• It provides the raw material upon which
• to base discussions on the possible solutions and
• strategies that can be used to redress the situation.
154
 Gender and Development
Major approaches of gender deconstruction
Affirmative action
• Catch up strategies/policies/programs, acknowledging
that the playing field has not been level.
• Governments may put in place strategies aimed at
• uplifting the position of the subordinate to be at par with
those favored social structurally.
• It is used in international job allocation not only in case
of gender, but also minority groups.
• However, affirmative action must be undertaken with
caution and for short periods of time to avoid backlashes.
155
 Gender and Development
Major approaches of gender deconstruction
Reconciliation
• The debates on gender have at times tended be
acrimonious not only between genders but also
between scholars in
• the South (underdeveloped) and
• those in the North (developed countries)
• This necessitates a reconciliation and agreements
between the parties opposing each other.
156
 Gender and Development
Major approaches of gender deconstruction
Spiritual maturation
• This is a personal realization of the embeddedness of all peoples
of the world and
• that the human race is in the end inextricably enjoined.
• In religious terms, it finds expression in the teachings of all the
three major religions (Christianity, Judaism and Islam).
• In Christianity, the teaching is basically that
• what one would not want done to themselves, they should not do to
another (golden rule).
• In lay man’s language it is indicated in the beliefs that one or
groups ensure their own freedom, survival, productivity, by
ensuring those of others.
157
 Gender and Development
Actors in the deconstruction of gender
(i) Government
• government plays a role in most of the above-named strategies.
• There is no actor better placed than government to work for and endure equality.
(ii) Civil society
• (church, NGOs, professional association, trade unions, community) has played and
continues to play a central role in issues matters of social justice including gender
equality.
• They advocate and agitate for change on behalf and with those most in need of
the change.
(iii) Family
• The family is the central socializing agent in society and it is where the seeds of
sexism are initially and effectively planted
(iv)Individual progressive thinkers.
(V) The mass media
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Introduction
• Education is one of the basic agents of progress for any
society in the contemporary world.
• Education system plays a major role in development of
society and modern economies.
• Education is a human right and an essential tool for
achieving the goals of equality, development, and peace.
• It is the key to addressing the challenges of the 21st
century.
• Education is fundamental to achieving sustainable
development.
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Education
• In its technical sense education is the process by
which society deliberately transmits its accumulated
knowledge, skills and values from one generation to
another.
• Education is meant to be for sustainable
development by helping people to
• develop the attitudes, skills and
• knowledge to make informed decisions for the benefit
of themselves and others, now and in the future, and
to act upon these decisions.
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Education and development
• Education and development are
interconnected.
• Education and development refer to the
interconnectedness between
• the process of acquiring knowledge and skills
(education) and
• the progress and improvement of societies
(development).
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Types of Education
1. Formal education
• Refers to the basic mode of education which one generally
comes across in schools.
• It can be regarded as a systematic way of
• attending a school or university and
• learning from the teachers using fundamental and instructional
skills.
• Be it any school, public or private only certified teachers who
have qualifications in the chosen domain can provide formal
education
• Examples of Formal Education are classroom learning, school
certification/grading, college, and university degrees.
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Characteristics of Formal Education
• It has a set grading system
• It is perfectly planned and has set course structures to
follow
• In response to the teachings, proper fee payment is
made every month
• Professional teachers are hired to teach the students
• The prescribed syllabus has to be finished in a pre-
determined time duration
• Formal Education follows a hierarchical order of nursery
to tertiary education.
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2. Informal Type of Education
• Whatever insightful information, skill, knowledge or craft you
learn without the involvement of any well-structured classroom
teaching.
• It starts as early as one is a toddler.
• Activities like
• how to eat food,
• how to drink water,
• how to wash your hands, sanitation etc.
• are a few of the lessons which can be categorized under Inform
learning.
• Some major examples of Informal education are a field trip to
the museum or art gallery, various stages of homeschooling etc.
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Characteristics of informal Education
• It is not planned and no time table is involved
• There is no syllabus involved
• One must learn randomly from any person as it is
not compulsory to learn from a professional teacher
• There is no fee payment or charges involved in this
method of learning
• Even learning through everyday experiences count
as a casual learning.
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3. Non-Formal Education
• It is any organized educational activity outside the established
formal system
• whether operating separately or
• as an important feature of some broader activity
• that is intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles and
learning objectives.
• It basically involves generic adult education, adult literacy or
college equivalency preparations.
• It can be referred to as a balance between formal and informal
education where there is intentional and pre-planned learning
• but there is no set curriculum that has to follow or is to be
completed in a given time.
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3. Non-Forma Education
• Examples of Non-formal Education includes
• programs such as swimming lessons.
• Programs promoting Fitness.
• Adult Education Courses that are Community
Based.
• Some free courses for Adult Education that are
organized by some organization.
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Characteristics of informal Education
• It is not included in the core syllabus of the school system
• Highly flexible to adjust with student’s regular study structure.
• You can start a non-formal education at any time and age.
• Non-formal education can be both certified and uncertified.
• The education structure can be both part-time and full-time.
• The syllabus of a non-formal course usually incorporates both
theoretical and practical practices

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The role of Education in social-economic development of society
• Education is one of the most important drivers of social and
economic.
• It plays the following roles:
Economic growth
• Education is a key to economic growth and efficiency.
• Economic progress of the sort enjoyed in Europe was not
observed in the illiterate societies
• Education is needed for people to benefit from scientific
advance as well as contribute to it.
• It improves the productivity and creativity of people, which
leads to entrepreneurship and technological advances.
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The role of Education in social-economic development of society
Social progress or development
• Education builds the man so it builds the society and nation at
large.
• Education and socialization are at the heart of human society,
• because these processes allow for the cultural and social
reproduction of any given society despite the passing of
generations.
• Education is a tool for achieving equality, development, and
peace.
• It improves people's understanding of themselves and the
world, which leads to broad social benefits
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The role of Education in social-economic development of society
Cultural development
• Education contributes in several ways such as
• by teaching knowledge and skills
• as well as cultural norms and values.
• Education preserves the functional cultural heritage expressed
through the media of Art, Music and Literature.
• For example, African traditional songs relived through music and
dance performed annually by schools, colleges and universities.
• African beliefs, traditions and practices preserved in literature
books, some of which have been set books in schools and
colleges.
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The role of Education in social-economic development of society
Sustainable development
• Education lays the foundation for the sustainable growth and
development of future generations.
• It helps to develop key institutions, such as the government, law,
and financial system.
• Sustainable development is seeking to meet the needs of the
present without compromising those of future generations
• We have to learn our way out of current social and
environmental problems and learn to live sustainably.

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The role of Education in social-economic development of society
Social mobility
• Education plays an important role in social mobility, equity, and
public health.
• It can lead to better employment opportunities, lower
unemployment, and higher wages.
• Education is a human right, and it's important to ensure that a
proper system is in place to support the next generation.
• Poor education systems can undermine a country's economic
interest and make it difficult to attract investment.

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The role of Education in social-economic
development of society
Education and Productivity
• Education helps in teaching individuals to adjust
to the discipline required to perform jobs,
certifying individuals for occupational roles
• Educated individuals are expected to be
productive in their respective occupations such
as industries, hospital, mining, agriculture, etc.
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The role of Education in social-economic development of society
Job creation and income growth
• Education contributes in teaching individuals to adjust to the
discipline required to perform jobs thereby reducing
unemployment rates.
• There is also positive feedback from improved education to
greater income equality, which, in turn, is likely to favor higher
rates of growth.
• As education becomes more broadly based, low-income people
are better able to seek out economic opportunities
• This improves individual livelihoods and boosts national
economic productivity and growth.
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Development of Education Policies in Developing Countries
• From the 1960s to date the education system in developing
countries was designed to
• Create a new state through institutional structures based on the
expansion of enrolment.
• Eliminate illiteracy.
• Produce a well-trained and functional class of middle and
higher-level manpower, which would spearhead the drive to
economic independence.
• (Develop a literate and self-reliant cadre of new elites to boost
the standing of developing countries.
• Equity and quality concerns
• Cost sharing in education through school fees and privatization
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Development of Education Policies in Developing
Countries
• From the 1960s to date the education system in
developing countries was designed to
• Focus on universal primary education (UPE)
• Gender parity in education
• Education as a human right
• Focus on quality, equity and inclusion
• Resilience and digital transformation
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Development of Education Policies in Developing
Countries
• But main problems have been
• Variable quality of education provided.
• A group of unemployed and angry graduates has
been created.
• Confusion over the language of instruction (ex-
colonial languages for neutrality – India, national
language – Pakistan or mixture – Tanzania)
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Theories of Education
Modernization Theory
• Stresses that a developed education system is a pre-condition of
economic growth and investment in education.
• It is also the most effective way to create economic growth.
• If this is to work there needs to be a move from:
• particularism to universalism
• ascription to achievement
• diffuseness to specificity

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Theories of Education
Modernization Theory
• Main assumption
• Education will lead to economic growth
• Basis for assumption
• Post-colonial backwardness of developing countries is often
maintained by
• traditional authority figures (puppet leaders under colonial
regimes) and/or
• the new Western-educated elites.

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Theories of Education
Main tenets of Modernization Theory
• Economic growth needs technical development.
• Technical development needs new skills.
• Schools equip people with these skills.
• This leads to further demands for these skills, so schools have to
improve to meet this demand.
Critique
• Educational aid may have ulterior motives and be a dimension
of foreign policy.
• It may also lead to brain drain and pro-Western views.

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Theories of Education
Dependency Theory
• Dependency theorists regard Western style education in
developing countries as cultural imperialism.
• For Dependency theorists, education in developing countries is
determined by the needs of Western capitalism.
• Thus, education together with the media and Multinational
companies (MNCs)
• creates a servitude of mind amongst people in developing
countries,
• through the perpetuation of Western structures, content and
forms of education.
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Theories of Education
Dependency Theory
• Dependency theorists believe that the emphasis on creating
Western-style education systems and policies in developing
countries leads to dependent growth.
Critique
• Dependency theorists argue that the education system in
developing countries cannot be im-proved without a (socialist)
revolution.
• This puts too much emphasis on external factors.
• Even intermediate level changes, such as
• changing teaching to local languages (from English or French,
for example) are seen as ineffective by Dependency theorists.
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Education and the Millennium Development Goals 2000-2015
• The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were a set of
targets set by the United Nations in 2000 to improve the lives of
people around the world. One of the goals was to achieve
universal primary education.
• [Link] extreme poverty and hunger
• [Link] universal primary education
• [Link] gender equality and empower women
• [Link] child mortality
• [Link] maternal health
• [Link] HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
• [Link] environmental sustainability
• [Link] partnership for development 184
 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Education and the Millennium Development Goals 2000-2015
• MDG 2: To ensure that children universally including both boys
and girls will be able to complete a full course of primary
education by 2015.
• The fact that rural children are highly affected by hunger and
malnutrition has also seriously affected their learning ability.
• As such, food security and
• primary education should be addressed at the same time to give
rural people the capacity to
• feed themselves and overcome hunger, poverty, and illiteracy.
• Social protection brings together all efforts for education and
food security towards increased effectiveness.
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Education and the Millennium Development Goals 2000-2015
• Education For All (EFA) Initiative
• A global initiative launched in Dakar, Senegal in
2000 to ensure that every individual has access
to basic quality education
• The emphasis was a particular focus on
marginalized and disadvantaged groups.
• The Education for all (EFA) initiative established
six key education targets:
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 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Education and the Millennium Development Goals 2000-2015
Education For All (EFA) Initiative targets
• Expanding early childhood care and education for
the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children
• Universal primary education (UPE)
• To ensure that by 2015 all children have access to free,
compulsory and quality primary education.
• To promote lifelong learning for all
• By ensuring equitable access to appropriate learning
and life skills programs for all young people and adults.
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 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Education and the Millennium Development Goals 2000-2015
Education For All (EFA) Initiative targets
• To improve adult literacy
• Achieve a 50% improvement in adult literacy by 2015.
• Achieve gender equality in education
• Eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary
education by 2005 and achieve gender equality in
education by 2015
• Improving the quality of education
• To ensure the excellence of learning outcomes such as
literacy, numeracy and essential life skills.
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 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Education and the Millennium Development Goals 2000-2015
Implementation of Goal 2 of MDGs in Tanzania
• Introduction of free primary and secondary education policy.
• In 2001 Tanzania introduced primary education development
plan (PEDP) which made primary education free and
compulsory
• In 2015 secondary education became free of charge under
the Fee-free basic education policy (FFBEP)
• Increased education funding
• Construction of new schools
• Renovation of existing infrastructures
• Procurement of teaching and learning materials
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 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Education and the Millennium Development Goals 2000-2015
Implementation of Goal 2 of MDGs in Tanzania
• Teacher recruitment and training
• Significant efforts were made to recruit and train more teachers
• Incentives for heads of schools and head teachers
• Introduction of free primary and secondary education policy.
• In 2001 Tanzania introduced primary education development
plan (PEDP) which made primary education free and
compulsory
• In 2015 secondary education became free of charge under
the Fee-free basic education policy (FFBEP)
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 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Education and the Millennium Development Goals 2000-2015
Implementation of Goal 2 of MDGs in Tanzania
• Increased education funding
• Construction of new schools
• Renovation of existing infrastructures
• Procurement of teaching and learning materials.
• Teacher recruitment and training
• Efforts were made to recruit and train more teachers to
address the increasing enrollment rates.

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 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Education and the Millennium Development Goals 2000-2015
Implementation of Goal 2 of MDGs in Tanzania
• Classroom expansion and construction of new schools
• the government constructed additional classrooms and
• Built new schools even in rural areas in order to:
• Accommodate more students
• Reduce overcrowding and
• Improve access.
• Community involvement
• In building classrooms and
• Supporting the implementation of PEDP
• This brought a sense of ownership and commitment to education.
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 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Education and the Millennium Development Goals 2000-
2015
Challenges in Achieving Goal 2 of MDGs in Tanzania
• Teacher shortages and large class size
• Insufficient teaching materials
• Disparity in education quality between urban and rural
areas
• High dropout rates
• Inadequate government funding and ineffective
allocation of resources.
• Inadequate teacher training, etc. 193
 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Education and the Sustainable Development Goals 2015 -
2030
The 17 Sustainable Development Goals
• The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of
17 objectives created by the United Nations
• to address global challenges and
• promote a sustainable future.
• The SDGs aim to end poverty, reduce inequality, and
promote prosperity, peace, and justice for all by 2030.
• The SDGs were developed at the 2012 U.N Conference
on Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
The 17 Sustainable Development Goals
• The SDGs replaced the 8 Millennium Development Goals
• The SDGs were adopted by all United Nations member
states in 2015.
• The SDGs are a call to action for everyone, including
• governments
• businesses,
• communities and
• education.
• All 17 Goals interconnect, meaning that success in one
affects success for others.
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 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
The 17 Sustainable Development Goals
• Goal 1: No poverty (in all its forms and everywhere)
• Goal2: Zero hunger (food security, sustainable
agriculture)
• Goal 3: Good health and wellbeing (for all at all ages)
• Goal 4: Quality education (inclusive, equitable quality
education
• Goal 5: Gender equality (also empower all women and
girls)
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 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
The 17 Sustainable Development Goals
• Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation (availability and
sustainable management of water and sanitation)
• Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy (ensure access to
affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy)
• Goal 8: Decent work and economic growth (promote
economic growth, employment and decent work
for all)
• Goal 9: Industry, innovation and infrastructure
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 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
The 17 Sustainable Development Goals
• Goal 10: Reduced inequalities
• Goal 11: Sustainable cities and communities
• Goal 12: Responsible consumption and production
• Goal 13: Climate action (urgent action to combat climate change)
• Goal 14: Life below water
• Goal 15: Life on land
• Goal 16: Peace, justice and strong institutions
• Goal 17: Partnerships for the goals.

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 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
The Targets of SDG no 4:
• By 2030,
• Ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable
and quality primary and secondary education
• Ensure that all girls and boys have access to
• quality early childhood development,
• care and pre-primary education so that they are ready
for primary education
• Ensure equal access for all women and men to
• affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary
education, including university.
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 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
The Targets of SDG no 4:
• By 2030,
• Substantially increase the number of youth and adults
who have relevant skills
• including technical and vocational skills, for
employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship.
• Eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal
access to all levels of education and vocational training for
the vulnerable, including
• persons with disabilities,
• indigenous peoples and
• children in vulnerable situations 200
 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
The Targets of SDG no 4:
• By 2030,
• Ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of
adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and
numeracy.
• Ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and
skills needed to promote sustainable development,
such as
• sustainable lifestyles,
• human rights,
• gender equality
• appreciation of cultural diversity, etc 201
 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
The Targets of SDG no 4:
• By 2030,
• Build and upgrade education facilities that are
• child, disability and gender sensitive and
• provide safe, nonviolent, inclusive and
• effective learning environments for all
• Substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to
developing countries, in particular least developed countries,
• for enrolment in higher education,
• vocational training and information and communications
• technology, technical, engineering and
• scientific pro-grammes, in developed countries and other
developing countries 202
 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
The Targets of SDG no 4:
• By 2030,
• Substantially expand globally the number of
scholarships available to developing countries, in
particular least developed countries,
• for enrolment in higher education,
• vocational training and information and
communications.
• technology, technical, engineering and
• scientific pro-grammes, in developed countries and
other developing countries. 203
 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
The Targets of SDG no 4:
• By 2030,
• Substantially increase the supply of qualified
teachers
• including through international cooperation for
teacher training in developing countries
• especially least developed countries and small
island developing states.

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Implementation of Goal 4 of SDGs in
Tanzania
• Increased pre-primary school enrollment
• Increased primary school enrollment
• Increased secondary school enrollment
• Fee free advanced secondary education
• Fees for A-level were abolished

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Implementation of Goal 4 of SDGs in Tanzania
• Focus on girls' education and equity
• Programs to encourage girls' enrollment and retention
in secondary school have been established
• Menstrual health education programs
• Increased gender disparity in education
• Teacher training programs
• Efforts to improve teacher quality through professional
development.
• Investment in technical and vocational training
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 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Implementation of Goal 4 of SDGs in
Tanzania
• Rural school infrastructure development
• Investment in building and equipping
schools in remote areas.
• Percentage of youth (15-24 years) and of
adults have achieved or exceeded a given
level of proficiency in literacy and numeric.
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 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Challenges to Achieve Goal 4 of SDGs in Tanzania
• Quality of education
• Teachers' quality is still a challenge
• Limited fund and resources
• Vulnerable groups still face barriers to accessing quality
education
• Shortage of qualified teachers, particularly in rural
areas
• Gender disparity is still a challenge in some
communities
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 EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Conclusion
• Education is a cornerstone of sustainable
development.
• Education fosters human capital, innovation and
social cohesion.
• Education empowers individuals with the skills and
knowledge needed to
• Break the cycle of poverty
• Drive economic growth and
• Address global challenges.
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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
This Sub-enabling outcome will help you understand
• The meaning of the term environment
• Define environmental degradation
• Global environmental crisis
• Causes of environmental degradation
• The importance of natural resources
• Some pressures facing the global environment
• Global warming
• Effects of environmental degradation
• Types of environmental problems facing Tanzania
• The way forward
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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
• To achieve sustainable growth and ensure the
wellbeing of current and future generation, the
concepts of environmental education and
development are important.
• Environmental education focuses on
• raising awareness,
• fostering knowledge and
• developing skills to recognize, understand and
address environmental issues.
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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
• Integrating environmental education into
development processes is vital for promoting
sustainability.
• It helps us understand the interconnectedness of
social, economic and environmental systems.
• Through environmental education individuals can
adopt practices that balance the needs of
development with
• the need to protect the planet.
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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
What is environment?

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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
What is environment?
• The term environment means the
surroundings of an organism
• The total environment of an organism
is the sum total of the biotic and abiotic
environment.

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What is environment?
• All the things around us with which we interact:
• Living things
• Animals, plants, forests, fungi, etc.
• Non-living things
• Continents, oceans, clouds, soil, rocks
• Our built environment
• Buildings, human-created living centers
• Social relationships and institutions
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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Humans exist within the environment
• Humans exist within the environment and are part
of nature.
• Our survival depends on a healthy, functioning
planet.
• We are part of the natural world.
• Our interactions with its other parts matter a great
deal.
• This idea is fundamental to environmental
conservation and human suvival
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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Humans and the world around us
• Humans depend completely on the environment for
survival.
• Enriched and longer lives, increased wealth, health,
mobility, leisure time
• But natural systems have been degraded
• Pollution, erosion, and species extinction
• Environmental changes threaten long-term health and
survival.
• With environmental problems come opportunities for
solutions.
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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Natural resources: vital to human survival
Substances and energy sources needed for survival

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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Natural resources: vital to human survival
• Perpetually available: sunlight, wind, wave
energy
• Renewable over short periods of time: timber,
water, soil, wildlife.
• These can be destroyed
• Non-renewable resources: Oil, coal, minerals
• These can be depleted
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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CRISES • Sea-levels are rising
• In many parts of the • Storms are destructive
world: • Water tables are falling
• Forests are shrinking • Rivers are running dry
• Deserts are expanding • Fisheries are collapsing
• Soils are eroding • Coral reefs are disappearing
• Range lands are • Life forms are vanishing
deteriorating • Pollutants and waste are
• The lower atmosphere is rising
warming • Tropical diseases are
• Glaciers are melting emerging
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ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Global Hazardous Faces

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ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Global Hazardous Faces

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ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Global Hazardous Faces

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ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Global Hazardous Faces

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ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Global Hazardous Faces

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Global Hazardous Faces

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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT

• The natural environment with

all its ecosystem services,
• comprises the entire basis
for life on the planet.
• Its value is therefore
impossible
• to quantify or
• even model.

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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Climate change: Problem in nutshell
• At the end of the month of March, 2014, an
updated report by the Intergovernmental
Panel for Climate Change (IPCC)1 was
released.
• Most of those who have read the report state
that
• “This is the most explicit and categorical wakeup
call to the world community on the precarious
situation on Earth.”
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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Climate change: Problem in nutshell
• This means that there will be more hunger for
more people all over the world.
• More human habitations are already exposed to
dangers of violent flooding and prolonged drought.
• Tropical diseases such as malaria will spread to
higher grounds as the temperatures rise,
• Thus, expanding its area of influence in parts of the
world where the malaria mosquitoes were not
found before.
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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Climate change: Problem in nutshell
• Social consequences of the Climate Change
are already being observed, especially in the
form of
• major movements of peoples from the affected
regions to the more human friendly parts of the
earth.
• Wars and conflicts as people fight for the limited
natural resources.

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Climate change: Problem in nutshell
• Scientists behind the report, have given different names
to the phenomenon.
• They call it Climate Change, environmental degradation,
the Green House Effect and Global Worming.
• The main cause according to the scientists is emission of
destructive gases, which include
• Carbon Dioxide,
• Methane and
• Nitrous Oxide.
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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Climate change: Problem in nutshell
• Scientists behind the report, have given different names to the
phenomenon.
• They call it Climate Change, environmental degradation, the
Green House Effect and Global Worming.
• The main cause according to the scientists is emission of
destructive gases, which include
• Carbon Dioxide,
• Methane and
• Nitrous Oxide.
• These gases are emitted by the machines that use fossil
fuels such as Petrol and Diesel.
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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Climate change: Problem in nutshell
• Domestic appliances such as fridges and air
conditioners on the other hand.
• Excessive use of fertilizers in farming results in
the release of some of these poisonous gases
into the atmosphere.
• Effectively, the condition of the earth has been
drastically compromised by the life style at the
center of modern technology and its economic
thrust.
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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Climate change: Problem in nutshell
• These gases eat away the atmospheric layer that
protects the earth from the harmful rays of the
sun, namely the ozone layer!
• Through the opening caused by the mentioned
gases,
• the sun’s harmful rays penetrate into our
atmosphere causing a worming effect that is
comparable to the green house.
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Climate change: Problem in nutshell
• This causes a general rise in temperature within the earth’s
surface.
• Such higher temperatures cause the glacial ice to melt thus
raising the levels of the ocean.
• The warmth causes unprecedented climatic change with such
phenomena as tornadoes and hurricane as the ones frequently
witnessed in the recent past.
• These are the effects that have given rise to the expressions, “
• global worming
• green house effect and
• climate change
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Climate change: Problem in nutshell
• There is an outstanding documentary entitled, Amazonia,
Ultima Llamata.
• This documentary is about the Zòé tribe, who are a native tribe
in the State of Parà on the Cuminapanema River in Brazilian
people.
• The documentary presents these people as living in total
dependence on nature.
• They strictly use what they need from the abundance of the
river and the forest: be it for their food, medicine, ornaments,
tools and even weapons.
• They have no contact or influence from the outside
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Climate change: Problem in nutshell
• Thirty-four years ago, a movie was produced in
South Africa, entitled, The Gods Must be Crazy.
• This is a film producing a sharp contrast between
• the modern technology and lifestyle and the
simple life of the Bushmen living in the Kalahari
Desert.
• Here again we see the simplicity, sobriety and
respect for nature as lived in context of desert.
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Climate change: Problem in nutshell
• These two movies are a production by the modern mind driven
with the pains and uncertainties of technology.
• They are perhaps a call to the modern man to reflect on the
current situation.
• Obviously, nobody doubts the value of science and technology,
and
• that significant gains have been made through them to improve
the value and dignity of life.
• Despite that, the painful truth is that
• the order of things has been drastically overturned, and
• in the event, things have gone out of control.
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Climate change: Problem in nutshell
• The problem started when man created a strong separation
between himself and the rest of creation.
• Literally man emerged from nature, cut the umbilical cord and
created a new relationship between himself and the rest of
nature.
• He became the creator, the conqueror and the ruler, the owner
and consumer.
• The rest of nature became the source for man’s insatiable
gratification
• The attitude has become, “I want it now and I want it all”. The
rest of creation has been pushed beyond its limits.
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Environmental Degradation
What is environmental degradation?
• This is a term used to describe a situation in which apart
of the natural environment is damaged.
• It can be used to refer to damage to the land, to water or
the air.
• Environmental degradation can also mean a loss
of biodiversity and a loss of natural resources in an area.
• The problem is that it is now occurring at a much faster
rate,
• Therefore, not leaving enough time for the environment
to recover. 243
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Environmental Degradation
What is environmental degradation?
• It is a result of social economical, technological and
institutional activities.
• Degradation occurs when earth’s natural resources are
depleted.
• These resources which are affected include:
• Water
• Air and
• Soil.
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Environmental Degradation
What is environmental degradation?
• The degradation also impacts our:
• Wildlife
• Plants
• Animals and
• Microorganisms
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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Environmental Degradation
Types of environmental degradation
• Deforestation
• Emission
• Desertification
• Extinction
• Erosion
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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Environmental Degradation
Types of environmental degradation
Erosion
• Is the process of weathering and transport of solids in the
natural environment or their source and deposits them
elsewhere.
• It usually occurs due to transport by wind, water or ice;
• By down-slope creep of soil and other material under the
force of gravity;
• Or by living organisms such as burrowing animals, in the case
of bioerosion.
• A certain amount of erosion is natural and in fact, healthy for
the ecosystem. 247
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Erosion

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Environmental Degradation
Types of environmental degradation
Deforestation
• Deforestation is the permanent removal of standing
forests, which occurs for a variety of reasons and
has many devastating consequences.
• It is the clearing or thinning of forests by humans.
• Deforestation represents one of the largest issues
in global land use.

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Environmental Degradation
Types of environmental degradation
Deforestation
• Estimates of deforestation traditionally are based
on the area of forest cleared for human use,
• including removal of the trees for wood products and
• for croplands and grazing lands.
• In the practice of clear-cutting, all the trees are
removed from the land, which completely destroys
the forest.
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Deforestation
 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Environmental Degradation
Types of environmental degradation
Emission
• Emissions are generated from a wide range of sources, such as
cars, trucks, and factories.
• An emission refers to the release of substances, usually gases or
particles, into the atmosphere or environment. Emissions can
come from various sources, including:
• Natural Sources: Volcanic eruptions, wildfires, and natural decay
processes.
• Human Activities: Combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles and
power plants, industrial processes, and agricultural practices.
• Common types of emissions include: 252
 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Environmental Degradation
Types of environmental degradation
Emission
Common types of emissions include:
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
• Such as carbon dioxide (CO₂) and
• Methane (CH₄), which contribute to climate change.
• Air Pollutants:
• Such as sulfur dioxide (SO₂),
• Nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), and
• Particulate matter (PM), which can affect air quality and human
health. 253
Emission
 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Environmental Degradation
Types of environmental degradation
Desertification
• Desertification is the process of fertile land transforming into desert
typically as a result of
• deforestation,
• drought or
• improper/inappropriate agriculture.
• It is a form of land degradation in which a comparatively dry land area
• becomes more and more arid,
• normally losing its bodies of water along with its wildlife and
vegetation.
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 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Environmental Degradation
Types of environmental degradation
Desertification
• This is a result of a variety of factors, such as
climate change and human activities.
• Desertification is an important global, ecological,
and environmental issue

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Desertification
 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Environmental Degradation
Types of environmental degradation
Extinction
• A species is said to be extinct when it no longer
lives anywhere on the planet.
• Extinction occurs when the last members of a
species die because they cannot acquire
• the food, water, shelter, and/or
• space necessary to survive.
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Environmental Degradation
Types of environmental degradation
Extinction
• Extinctions have happened throughout Earth history for a
variety of reasons at various rates, including:
• Changes in environmental conditions, including
• climate (temperature, precipitation, snow and ice cover),
• ocean acidity,
• nutrient levels, and
• ocean oxygen levels.

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Environmental Degradation
Types of environmental degradation
Extinction
• Human activities such as
• Deforestation, habitat destruction, agricultural activities, and
urbanization,
• which remove organisms from the environment, and limit
resources and space available for species populations
• Fishing and hunting, which directly decrease species
populations.
• The release of pollutants and waste that can harm the health of
organisms.
• Human freshwater use, which can limit the amount of water 261
available for other organisms in ecosystems.
 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Factors of Environmental Degradation
• There are basically two factors namely:
[Link] factors such as
• drought, storms, on sea, land and deserts such as
hurricanes, tornados, carina and volcanic eruptions.
• These factors lead to land degradation through
erosion.
[Link] factors which include
• deforestation, industrialization and urbanization.
• These factors lead to water, land and air pollution.
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 World Population Growth.
Can this growth be sustained?
One of the chief cause of degradation
According to the International Programs Center, U.S.
Bureau of the Census, the total population of the
World, projected to 05/11/08 at 20:05 GMT (EST+5)
was: 2050
6,667,030,460
Population:
2007
Population: Annual Increase 81 million people
9.198 Billion
6.596 Billion
 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Pollution of Air Environment
• Air pollution is made up of a mixture of
gases and particles that have been
released into the atmosphere by man-
made processes.
• We breath about 2 gallons of air every
minute
• A typical human life span can be reduced
by 1-2 years from inhaling polluted air. 264
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Global Warming
• Global warming is a gradual rise of the earth’s temperature.
• It is a function of greenhouse effect.
• There is a rise in global mean surface temperature by 4-6 degree
centigrade.
Impact of Global Warming on human health
• Frequent temperature extremes (killer heat waves)
• Changing rainfall patterns
• Rise in sea levels
• Frequent storms and coastal flooding
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Impact of Global Warming on human
health
• Drought
• Air pollution made worse by warming
• Asthma, bronchitis, emphysema complications
• Expansion of deserts
• Unable to contain spread of infectious diseases
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Atmospheric Gases
Non-Greenhouse gases Greenhouse gases

Nitrogen (N2) Carbon dioxide (CO2) – burning fossil fuels and wood

Oxygen (O2) Nitrous oxide (NO2)- fertilizer use and decomposition of

animal wastes

Argon (Ar) Methane (CH4) – Sediments, swamps, landfills, in

flooded rice pads
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - freon or refrigerant
Halons such as halocarbons – fire extinguishers
Water vapor – clouds reradiate heat back to earth 268
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Greenhouse earth
• Greenhouse gases have been essential to the
survival of life on planet earth
• They trap heat and cause the earth to warm
• Human activities alter the proportion of GHGs in
the atmosphere
• They add more GHGs and induce more heat
trapping by the atmosphere.
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Water pollution
• It is the release of substances (chemicals, trashes,
microorganisms, fertilizers) into
• surface groundwater or into lakes,
• streams
• rivers
• estuaries and
• oceans to the point that the substances interfere with
beneficial use of the water or with the natural functioning
of ecosystems.
• It may include the release of energy in the form of
radioactivity or heat into bodies of water.
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Environmental problems facing Tanzania
• Land degradation
• Accessibility of water
• Air and water pollution
• Loss of biodiversity and habitats
• Aquatic systems degradation
• Deforestation
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Suggestions: think green, act green
• Prevent pollution
• Reduce waste
• Try composting of biodegradable garbage
• Use water, energy and natural resources efficiently
• Maintain the diversity of life
• Protect the world’s natural, cultural and indigenous
heritage
• Support environmental education
• Support local action and community participation.
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Conclusion
• The effects of climate change due to environmental
degradation are real.
• As such, collective efforts and prioritizing
environmental education are essential for achieving
global sustainability and ensuring a harmonious
coexistence between humans and the natural
world.
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