Measuring instruments.
Measuring instruments are classified based on their operating principles, the type of quantity they
measure, and their function. All indicating instruments, which provide a visual readout, rely on a
system of control, balancing, and damping to provide accurate and stable readings.
Classification of measuring instruments
Instruments can be broadly classified in several ways:
● Absolute (or Primary) vs. Secondary: Absolute instruments determine the value of a
quantity based on the instrument's physical constants and deflection. They do not require
calibration and are used mainly as laboratory standards, such as a tangent galvanometer.
Secondary instruments, on the other hand, provide a direct reading and must be calibrated
against a standard instrument before use. These are the most common instruments used in
practice, including ammeters and voltmeters.
● Indicating, Integrating, and Recording: This classification applies to secondary instruments.
o Indicating instruments display the instantaneous value of a quantity using a pointer
moving over a calibrated scale, like a speedometer or ammeter.
o Integrating instruments measure the total quantity over a period of time, such as an
electricity meter that records total energy consumption.
o Recording instruments provide a continuous, graphical record of a measured
quantity over a specific time, like a strip-chart recorder.
● Analog vs. Digital: Analog instruments use a pointer on a scale to show a continuously
varying value, while digital instruments provide a numerical readout.
● Electrical, Mechanical, and Thermal: Instruments are also categorized by the physical
quantity they measure.
Indicating instruments: Constructional details
All indicating instruments depend on three essential torques for their operation:
● Deflecting Torque (𝑇𝑑): Produced by the quantity being measured, this torque moves the
instrument's pointer away from its zero position.
● Controlling (or Restoring) Torque (T𝑐): This torque opposes the deflecting torque and
increases with the pointer's deflection. It brings the pointer to rest at the correct measured
value where the two opposing torques are equal (𝑇𝑐=𝑇𝑑).
o Construction: It can be provided by a spring (spring control) or by gravity (gravity
control). Spring control is often more reliable and allows the instrument to be used
in any position, unlike gravity control, which requires a vertical orientation.
● Damping Torque (𝑇𝐷): This torque prevents the pointer from oscillating excessively around
its final reading, allowing it to settle quickly and smoothly. It only acts when the pointer is in
motion.
o Construction: Common methods include:
▪ Air Friction Damping: A lightweight aluminium piston moves within an enclosed air chamber,
with air pressure providing the damping force.
▪ Fluid Friction Damping: A disc or vane submerged in a viscous oil provides damping.
▪ Eddy Current Damping: A metal disc (e.g., aluminium) attached to the moving system cuts
through a magnetic field, inducing eddy currents that create an opposing torque.
Characteristics of measuring instruments
Key performance attributes, known as characteristics, determine an instrument's quality:
● Accuracy: The degree to which a measurement conforms to the true value.
● Precision: The degree of exactness with which an instrument is designed to perform.
● Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in output reading for a given change in input. A highly
sensitive instrument shows a large output change for a small input change.
● Range/Span: The range is the minimum and maximum values an instrument can measure,
while the span is the difference between these limits.
● Hysteresis: The difference in readings when the input is increasing versus when it is
decreasing, caused by energy storage or dissipation.
● Drift: An unwanted change in an instrument's output over time, independent of any change
in the input.
● Reproducibility: The ability of an instrument to maintain its accuracy over a period of time.
Errors in measurements
Measurement errors are the difference between the true value and the measured value and can be
categorized into:
● Systematic Errors: These are consistent errors that cause readings to be consistently higher
or lower than the true value.
o Instrumental errors: Caused by imperfections in the instrument's construction, such
as a worn spring.
o Environmental errors: Caused by external conditions like temperature or humidity.
o Observational errors: Caused by human misjudgement, such as parallax error when
reading an analog scale.
● Random Errors: Unpredictable fluctuations in readings caused by uncontrollable factors.
They have an equal probability of being positive or negative.
● Gross Errors: Significant mistakes caused by human carelessness, such as misreading an
instrument or incorrect recording of data.