CHILD DEVELOPMENT

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Q5 write short notes (any two) [20 m (10m each)]

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Module 1

Introduction to child development

Scientific study of the children from

birth(conception) to adolescent (18-19 years) is
called child development

What does child development mean?

Ans. Child development is a specialized area of study which
concerns itself with growth and development of a child right
from the moment of conception to adolescence

*Definition of child development

According to Laura e berk child development is a field of study

devoted to understanding human constancy and change from
conception through adolescence.
Child development is a part of longer discipline known as
developmental psychology, or in its inter-disciplinary sense,
human development which includes all changes throughout the
life span.

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*Scope of child development.

Child development though part of human development, has a

wider scope of a separate discipline. since its directly dealing
with human beings, it has a greater scope which is as following
1. Studying Stages of Child Development: Focus on
understanding the Early (infancy to preschool), Middle
(school age), and Late (adolescence) stages of
development.
2. Factors Affecting Growth and Development:
Investigating environmental, genetic, nutritional, and
social factors that influence a child’s physical and mental
growth.
3. Domains of Development: Exploring various
developmental domains such as cognitive, social,
emotional, and physical development.
4. Professional Application: Understanding child
development is beneficial for professions like education,
psychology, social work, paediatrics, and early childhood
care.
5. Guidance for Parents and Prospective Parents: Helps
current and future parents understand how to support their
child’s developmental needs and milestones.
6. Career Pathways: Offers opportunities to pursue careers
in Child Development, Human Development, Early
Childhood Education, Paediatric Care, and Child
Psychology.
7. Career in Child Development or Human Development:
Provides a pathway for those interested in becoming
specialists in child or human development, offering
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 careers in education, research, counselling, and policy-
making related to child welfare.
8. Specializations and Further Studies: Encourages further
studies in fields such as early childhood education,
developmental psychology, family studies, or child
advocacy, leading to advanced career opportunities.
9. Emotional and Psychological Development: Studying
the emotional regulation of children, their attachment
styles, and psychological well-being, which are essential
for healthy development.
10. Social Development and Peer Interaction:
Exploring how children develop social skills, build
friendships, and navigate peer relationships, which
influence their behaviour and personality

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*Definition of growth
The term usually signifies quantitative changes like increase
in height and weight or the change in size or body proportions

*Definition of development
The term development means a progressive series of changes
that occur as a result of maturation and learning. development
implies qualitative changes. This means that development
does not consist merely of adding inches to one’s height or
improving one’s ability. instead, it is complex process of many
factors

Summary of development

The term development however covers a larger spectrum of changes which are both
qualitative and quantitative. these include changes in behaviour, interests’
comprehension, etc.

KEYS GROWTH DEVELOPMENT

[Link] REFERS TO REFERS TO
QUANTITATIV QUALITATIVE
E CHANGES IN CHANGES IN A
SIZE, SUCH AS CHILD’S ABILITIES
INCREASES IN AND FUNCTIONING,
SUCH AS
HEIGHT,
COGNITIVE,
WEIGHT, AND
EMOTIONAL, AND
OTHER
SOCIAL SKILLS. IT
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 PHYSICAL IS A BROADER
DIMENSIONS. CONCEPT THAT
[Link] OF IT IS A INVOLVES
CHANGES BIOLOGICAL CHANGES IN
PROCESS OF COMPLEXITY
RATHER THAN JUST
PHYSICAL
SIZE.
EXPANSION.

INVOLVES
MEASURABLE INVOLVES
[Link] PHYSICAL COMPLEX, OFTEN
CHANGES. FOR UNMEASURABLE
EXAMPLE, A CHANGES, SUCH AS
CHILD’S HEIGHT IMPROVEMENTS IN
AND WEIGHT CAN THINKING,
BE TRACKED OVER PROBLEM-
TIME. SOLVING, SOCIAL
RELATIONSHIPS,
[Link] AND EMOTIONAL
UNDERSTANDING.
THESE CHANGES
ARE OBSERVED
PRIMARILY
THROUGH
LIMITED TO
BEHAVIOUR
PHYSICAL
RATHER THAN
[Link] CHANGES LIKE
DIRECTLY
Y CHANGES IN BODY
MEASURED.
STRUCTURE,
ORGAN SIZE, AND
PHYSICAL HEALTH.

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 ENCOMPASSES
PHYSICAL,
COGNITIVE,
EMOTIONAL, AND
TYPICALLY SOCIAL CHANGES.
FOLLOWS A BERK HIGHLIGHTS
PREDICTABLE DEVELOPMENT AS
TIMEFRAME AND A HOLISTIC
ENDS AT PHYSICAL PROCESS THAT
MATURITY, INFLUENCES NOT
USUALLY AROUND ONLY PHYSICAL
LATE GROWTH BUT ALSO
ADOLESCENCE OR HOW A CHILD
EARLY LEARNS,
ADULTHOOD. INTERACTS WITH
OTHERS, AND
REGULATES
IS EASILY EMOTIONS.
MEASURABLE
THROUGH
CONTINUES
NUMERICAL
THROUGHOUT
VALUES LIKE
LIFE. BERK
HEIGHT, WEIGHT ,
EMPHASIZES
AND HEAD
THAT WHILE
CIRCUMFERENCE.
PHYSICAL
GROWTH
MIGHT CEASE,
COGNITIVE
AND
EMOTIONAL

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 DEVELOPMEN
T CONTINUES
INTO
ADULTHOOD
AND EVEN
OLD AGE.

IS OFTEN NOT
DIRECTLY
MEASURABLE
BECAUSE IT
INVOLVES
CHANGES IN
SKILLS AND
ABILITIES,
SUCH AS
REASONING,
SOCIAL
INTERACTION,
AND
EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE
, WHICH ARE
OBSERVED
RATHER THAN
NUMERICALLY
QUANTIFIED.

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9|Page
developmental stages and its domains

TOPICS:
o Domains of Development
o Characteristics of Domains of Development
o Developmental Stages
o Characteristics of Developmental Stages
o Principles of Development

domains of development

mortor/physical social language emotional moral

developm cognative developm
development development developme development
nt ent ent

knowledge
changeing about other
body language expressing changes in intellectual attaining
body sizes people
,sign language emotions abilities ,including
,proportions ,interperso and
,facial expressions ([Link] attention ,memory
,apperance nal skills understandi
,imitation , t emotions 2. ,academics and
,functioning of ,friendships ng morality
maturation , plesant everyday knowledge and values
body systems ,intimate
prespeech emotion ,problem solving
,perceptual relationship
conversations ),knowing to ,imagination ,
and motor s , social
,nature and managing creativity and
capacities ,and skills
nurture thoses language
physical health ,acquistion of emotions
language per
development

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 stages of development

infancy childhood adolecence

early: 12-14/15 y
neonatal : 0 days- 15 early : 2-6 y
weeks

todller : 15 weeks -2 y

middle : 14/15-16/17 y
middle : 6-9 y

late 9-12y

late :16/17 y

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Principals of development
Knowing what the development pattern is like has scientific
as well as practical value. these values are:
First, knowledge of the pattern of human development has
developmental psychologist to know what to expect of
children at approx. what ages to expect different patterns of
behaviour to appear and then those patterns will normally be
replaced by more mature pattern this is important because if
too much is expected at a given age children are likely to
develop feeling of inadequacy if they do not live up to the
standard their parents and teacher set for them.
I] Development involves change
Many people use the term “growth” and “development”
Interchangeably in reality there are different thoughts
they are inseparable; neither takes place alone. growth
refers to quantitative changes increase in size and
structure. not only does the child become larger
physically, but the size and structure of the internal
organs and the brain increase as the result of the growth
of brain, the child has a greater capacity for learning, for
remembering and for reasoning. the child grows
mentally as well as physically.

Development by contrast, refers to qualitative and

quantitative changes .it may be defined as a progressive
series of orderly coherent changes. “progressive”
signifies that the change is directional, that their lead
forward rather than backward. “orderly” and “coherent”
suggested that there is a definite relationship between
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 the changes taking place and those that preceded or will
follow them. neugarten has explained how changed in
development effect people as they grow older.

TYPES OF CHANGE IN DEVELOPMENT

the human being is never static. from the moment
conception to the time of death, the person is undergoing
changes. as Piaget has explained, structures are “far
from being static and given from the start.”
He goes on to explain that, instead of being static, a
maturing organism undergoes continuous and
progressive change in response to experience condition
and their changes result in a complex network of
interaction.

At every age, some of the changes that occur during the

development process or just being, sum is at their peak,
and some are in the process of decline. these changes
may be divided into four major categories:
a) change in size:
these includes physical changes in height, weight,
circumference and internal organs and mental changes in
memory, reasoning, perception, and creative imagination
b) changes in proportion:
children are not miniature adults in the physical
proportion nor are they mentally miniature adults their
imagination capacity is better developed than their
reasoning capacity while their reverse is true of adults.

c) disappearance of old features:

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their certain physical feature such as thymus gland after
puberty and baby hair and teeth, loose their usefulness, they
gradually atrophy, as do some psychologist and behavioural
traits, babyish locomotion and speech and fantastic extension
of the imagination.
d) Acquisition of new features
Some new physical and mental features develop from
maturation. And some develop from learning and experience.
New physical features include second teeth and
primary and secondary sex characteristics, new mental
features include interest in sex, moral standards. and religious
beliefs.

CHILDREN’S ATTITUDES TOWARDS CHANGE

As adulthood progresses, many men and women
dread change whether it be failing eyesight or the
accumulation of middle-age fat that proclaims to world that
they are growing old or the added responsibilities that age
brings. By contrast, children tend to welcome each change
because it brings them closer to the privileges and freedom,
they associate with being “grown up”

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Whether the individual child's attitudes toward change are
generally favourable or unfavourable depends upon many
factors. First, children's awareness of the change. how the
change affects their behaviour social attitudes toward the
change affect children just as they do adults. social attitudes
are influenced, to some extent at least, by how the change
affects the child's appearance. cultural attitudes affect the way
people treat children as a result of changes in their appearance
and behaviour. Even peers may regard the prepubescent as a
"pest" and old friendships often break as a result. Under such
conditions, it is unlikely that children will have favourable
attitudes toward many of the changes that puberty brings.
II. Early Development Is More Critical Than Later
Development
The first important scientific clue of the significance of the
early years came from Freud's studies of personality
maladjustment. Such maladjustments, Freud found, could be
traced to unfavourable childhood experiences (32). babyhood
is a time of "basic trust" the individual learns to view the
world as safe, reliable, and nurturing; or a time of "basic
distrust"-the individual learns to view the world as full of
threat, unpredictability, and treachery.
It also depends on how parents gratify the child's needs for
food, attention, and love. Once learned, these attitudes will
colour the individual's perceptions of people and situations
throughout life.
maladjusted children from preschool years into high school or
college have revealed that most of them were so poorly
adjusted as young children that they never belonged to any

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group or had many friends. many suffered from speech,
academic, and enuretic difficulties
The first five years of the child's school experience, for
example, has been called the "critical period" in the
development of the achievement drive. The reason for this,
Sontag and Kagan have pointed out, is that "High levels of
achievement behaviour at that age are highly correlated with
achievement behaviour in adulthood". Adults who, as
children, were afraid of ridicule, punishment, or other
unpleasant experience, had negative self-concept
characterised by self-derogation. First two years are critical in
setting the pattern foe personal and social adjustment

CONDITIONS AFFECTING EARLY FOUNDATIONS

FAVORABLE INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

Favourable relationships with people, especially with family

members, will encourage the child to develop outgoing
tendencies and to become other-oriented-a characteristic that
leads to good personal and social adjustments.

EMOTIONAL STATES

Emotional deprivation, resulting from rejection by family

members or separation from parents, often leads to personality

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disorders. Emotional satisfaction, by contrast, encourages
healthy personality development.

CHILD-TRAINING METHODS

Children brought up by permissive parents tend, as they grow

older, to lack a sense of responsibility, to have poor emotional
control, and to become underachievers in whatever they
undertake. Those brought up by democratic or even slightly
authoritarian parents make better personal and social
adjustments.

EARLY ROLE-PLAYING

The firstborn child, who is, for example, often expected to

assume responsibilities in the home and to take care of
younger children, may have greater self-confidence than later-
born siblings but may also have a tendency to develop a
lifelong habit of bossiness.

CHILDHOOD FAMILY STRUCTURE

The child who comes from a large family tends to be- come
authoritarian in attitudes and behaviour, while coming from a
divorced or separated family makes the child anxious,
distrustful, and somewhat rigid.

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ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULATION
"A stimulating environment is one that encourages the
development of the child's hereditary potentials. Talking to a
baby or showing a preschooler pictures in story books
encourages interest in learning words and a de- sire to learn to
read. A stimulating environment encourages good physical
and mental development, while an unstimulating environment
causes the child's development to fall below its potential.

DEFINATION OF EARLY DEVELOPMENT

The environment in which children live during the early
formative years of life has a strong impact on their hereditary
potentials. Because foundations for attitudes and behaviour
patterns are laid early, when the environment is limited almost
exclusively to the home and when the child's most constant
social contacts are with family members, these foundations
are "home grown." Even as children grow older and spend
increasingly more time with members of the peer group, in the
neighbourhood and school, the influence of the home on the
early foundations will still be apparent. By that time, the
foundations will be so firmly established that any changes that
do occur will be minimal.

WHY EARLY FOUNDATIONS ARE IMPORTANT

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There are four lines of evidence to substantiate this claim.
First, since learning and experience play increasingly
dominant roles in development as children grow older, they
can be directed into channels that will lead to good
adjustment.
Second, because early foundations quickly develop into
habitual patterns, they will have a lifelong influence on
children's personal and social adjustments.
Third, contrary to popular belief, children do not outgrow
undesirable traits as they grow older. Instead, as was stressed
earlier, patterns of attitudes and behaviour, established early in
life, tend to persist regardless of whether they are good or bad,
beneficial or harmful to the child's adjustments
Fourth, because it is sometimes desirable to make changes in
what has been learned, the sooner the changes are made, the
easier it is for children and. consequently, the more
cooperative they are in making the changes.

DEVELOPMENT IS THE PRODUCT OF MATURATION

AND LEARNING

One of the oldest controversies in the world of science

concerns the relative importance of heredity and environment
in determining the physical and mental characteristics of the
developing child. Despite wide scientific and practical interest
in this problem, valid evidence is still far from adequate to
solve it to every- one's satisfaction. As was pointed out in no
completely acceptable method has been found to isolate the
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influence of heredity from that of environment. There is
always the possibility of psychological damage to the children
used as subjects for scientific experimentation.
The evidence seems to indicate that the development of
physical and mental traits comes partly from an intrinsic
maturing of those traits and partly from exercise and effort on
the part of the individual. Which plays the more important
role is still a matter of conjecture

Meaning of "Maturation"

maturing-maturation-is the unfolding of characteristics

potentially present in the individual that come from the
individual's genetic endowment. In ontogenetic functions-
functions specific to the individual-such as swimming, ball
throwing, riding bicycles or writing, training is essential.
Without such training, development will not take place. No
hereditary tendency can mature fully, how- ever, without
environmental support.

MEANING OF LEARNING

Learning is development that comes from exercise and effort.

Through learning, children acquire competence in using their
hereditary resources. They must, however, have opportunities
to learn. A child with superior neuromuscular organization, for
example, may have a high aptitude for musical performance.

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But, if deprived of opportunities for practice and systematic
training, the child will not develop this hereditary potential.
Some learning comes from practice or the mere repetition of
an act. learning may consist of imitation, in which the person
consciously copies what others do. Or it may consist of
identification, in which the person attempts to adopt the
attitudes, values, motives and behaviour of admired and loved
persons.
Learning may come from training-selected, directed and
purposive activity.

INTERACTION OF MATURATION AND LEARNING

Development during the prenatal period comes mainly from

maturation and is very little dependent upon activity.
Postnatal maturation and learning are closely inter- related;
one influences the other,
A number of significant facts of both practical and theoretical
value come from the present evidence of the interrelationship
of maturation and learning.

IV. The Developmental Pattern Is Predictable

Every species, whether animal or human, follows a pattern of
development peculiar to that species. in prenatal development,
there is a genetic sequence,

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with certain traits appearing at fixed intervals. The same
orderly pattern is evident in postnatal development, though
the individual rate of development may vary more in the
postnatal period than in the prenatal.

SOME PREDICTABLE PATTERNS

From the many evidences of an orderly, predictable pattern in

physical development, in both prenatal and postnatal life, have
come two laws of the directional sequence of development:
the cephalocaudal law and the proximodistal law. According
to the cephalocaudal law, development spreads over the body
from head to foot. This means that improvements in structure
and function come first in the head region, then in the trunk,
and last in the leg region. According to the proximodistal law,
development proceeds from near to far-outward from the
central axis of the body toward the extremities. In the fetus,
the head and trunk are fairly well developed before the
rudimentary limb buds appear. Longitudinal studies of
intelligence have revealed that the pattern of mental
development is as predict- able as the pattern of physical
development. the major part of mental growth comes when
the body is developing most rapidly, during the first 16 to 18
years (65, 71). There is also a predictable pattern for
development of the different intellectual functions. such as
memory and reasoning, that constitute general intelligence.
Specific areas of development likewise follow predictable
patterns. These include different aspects of motor
development, emotional behaviour, speech, social behaviour,

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concept development, goals, interests, and identification with
others.

Conditions That Affect the Developmental Pattern

The pattern of development can be interfered with, either

temporarily or permanently, by environmental or physical
conditions. This interference may take the form of delaying or
accelerating the speed with which the pattern of development
normally occurs, or it may alter the pattern.
The pattern of physical development may be altered
permanently by unfavourable environmental conditions before
or after birth. Calcium deficiency during the prenatal and
early postnatal months results in rickets a disease in which the
bones do not harden normally thus resulting in carious teeth, a
flat chest. crooked legs or back, or deformed pelvis
Interference with the pattern of mental development when
there are unfavourable conditions in the prenatal and early
postnatal environments are equally as marked as in the pattern
of physical development. Severe malnutrition at this time not
only results in smaller head circumference and lower
cognitive ability but it also affects personality by making
children apathetic
The pattern of development may also be retarded by
psychological conditions. Emotional deprivation, due to
parental rejection, loss of a parent, or institutionalization, for
example, may retard both the physical and psychological
patterns of development

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Stimulation of physical and mental development, as was
pointed out earlier, affects the predictable pattern of
development by accelerating it. Good health, encouragement,
and opportunities to learn, plus a strong motivation on the
child's part, will speed up development in all areas.

IMPORTANCE OF PREDICTING DEVELOPMENT

Time consuming and difficult as it is to determine whether a

predictable pattern of development exists and what factors
may interfere with this pattern, most child psychologists
consider such information vital. This is true not only from a
theoretical but also from a practical angle.
PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF PREDICTING
DEVELOPMENT

MATURE SIZE
It is possible to predict at a fairly early age what the child's
adult physique will be.

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Educational plans can be based on the child's early intellectual
aptitudes.

PREPARATION FOR NEXT STAGE

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At every stage of development, the child can be pre- pared for
the next stage.

VOCATIONAL PLANNING
Early physical, intellectual, and personality development give
clues as to what the child may be able to do vocationally in
adulthood. These clues can be used by parents and teachers
for planning the training for the child's future vocation.

ADOPTION
Since early patterns of physical and mental development are
predictive of later development, they can be used as an aid in
selecting babies for adoption.

V. The Developmental Pattern Has Predictable

Characteristics

SIMILARITY IN DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS

All children follow a similar developmental pattern with one

stage leading to the next. Babies stand before they walk, for
example, and draw circles before squares. Children who are
born prematurely may lag behind in development for about a
year, but after that, they usually catch up to the norm for full-
term babies and follow their developmental pattern at about
the same rate. Very bright and very dull children likewise
follow the same developmental sequence as those of average
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intelligence. However, those who are very bright develop at a
more rapid rate than those who are average while very dull
children develop at a slower rate.

Development Proceeds from General to Specific Responses

In mental as well as in motor responses, general activity

always precedes specific activity. In emotional behaviour
babies first respond to strange and unusual objects with a
general fear. Later, their fears become more specific and are
characterized by different types of behaviour, such as crying,
turning away and hiding, or standing their ground and
pretending not to be afraid.

Development Is Continuous

Development is continuous from the moment of conception to

death but it occurs at different rates- sometimes slowly and
sometimes rapidly.
Since development is continuous, what happens at one stage
influences the following stage. Unhealthy attitudes about self
or about relationships with others during the early years, for
example, are rarely eliminated completely. They are reflected
in the individual's outlook on life even in middle and old age.

Different Areas Develop at Different Rates

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While the development of different physical and mental traits
is continuous, it is never uniform for the entire organism. The
feet, hands, and nose, for example, reach maximum
development early in adolescence, while the lower parts of the
face and the shoulders develop more slowly
Variations in the rate of development of different physical and
mental traits, especially when pronounced, lead to many
adjustment problems. The "superior-immature" child, whose
intellectual development outpaces physical, social, or
emotional development, will be out of step with both
contemporaries and older children. Similarly. the fact that
some parts of the body reach their mature size earlier than
others accounts in part at least for the awkwardness and self-
consciousness of the young adolescent.

There Is Correlation in Development

The girl who is "beautiful but dumb" and the boy who is
"brainy but a physical weakling" are stereotypes of this belief.
The belief has not been validated by experimental studies.
When physical development is rapid, so is mental
development, just as physical development is marked by
changes in body proportions as well as by increase in size, so
mental development is characterized by different rates of
growth for memory, reasoning, association, and other mental
abilities.

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VI. There Are Individual Differences in Development

Although the pattern of development is similar for all

children, all children follow the predictable pattern in their
own way and at their own rate, some children develop in a
smooth, gradual, step-by-step fashion while others move in
spurts. Some show slight swings while others show wide
ones. All children do not therefore, reach the same point of
development at the same age,

Causes of Differences

Physical development, for example, depends partly on

hereditary potentials and partly on such environ- mental
factors as food, general health, sunlight, fresh air, climate,
emotions, and physical exertion. Intellectual development is
affected by such factors as inherent capacity, the emotional
climate, whether one is encouraged to pursue intellectual
activities, whether one has a strong intellectual drive, and
whether one has opportunities for experiences and learning.
Personality development is influenced by genetic factors as
well as by attitudes and social relationships, both in the home
and outside. The environmental factors play a more dominant
role in producing the differences that do the hereditary factors
Consistency Within Patterns
Even though the rate of development varies among children,
all children display a certain consistency of development. This
means that children follow a pat- tern that is characteristically
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theirs, controlled by their unique combination of hereditary
endowment and environmental factors.

PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF INDIVIDUAL

DIFFERENCES

Children follow a developmental pattern that differs even

though only in minor details. from the pattern followed by
other children, practical value of such knowledge far
outweighs its theoretical value the reason for this is that
parents and teachers tend to think of the children of the same
age as being alike and consequently, expect similar behaviour
from them or they expect that “what works” with one child
will automatically “work” with another child

VII. There Are Periods in the Developmental Pattern

The five major developmental periods in childhood begin with
the moment of conception and end when the child becomes
sexually mature. These periods, with their characteristic forms
of development and approximate ages.

PERIODS OF EQUILIBRIUM AND DISEQUILIBRIUM

In the developmental pattern, some periods are characterized

by "equilibrium" and others by "disequilibrium." In the
former, the child is making good adjustments and is easy to
live with. In the latter, adjustments appear to be disrupted by

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conditions within or by environmental factors; there are
tensions, indecisions, in- securities, and other behaviour
problems. As a result. the child is difficult to live with.
the periods of equilibrium and dis- equilibrium between the
ages of 18 months and 8 years
Just as there are predictable ages of equilibrium and
disequilibrium, so there are predictable patterns of behaviour
at these ages. During periods of disequilibrium, children seem
to be making an effort to snap the old bonds. "Good" children
are suddenly "bad." They have difficulties in eating and
sleeping and in adapting to people and life in general. during
periods of equilibrium, children are "in focus" and show signs
of good adjustment. They not only adapt better to people and
environmental demands but they are happier and more
relaxed. Boys and girls develop at different rates, and their
periods of equilibrium and disequilibrium occur at slightly
different ages. Within each sex group there are also
differences between early and late matures.
NORMAL VERSUS "PROBLEM" BEHAVIOR

because they do not conform to adult standards,

These patterns of so-called "problem" behaviour arise because
of the adjustments the child must make to new demands and
new environmental conditions. The more demands and the
greater the changes in the environment, the more adjustment
problems the child will encounter During phases of
disequilibrium, a con- stellation of environmental pressures
and biological changes affects the child's behaviour. At
puberty, for example, social expectations to "act like an adult"
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coincide with the adjustments the child must make to the
physical and physiological changes puberty gives rise to.

VII. THERE ARE SOCIAL EXPECTATIONS FOR

EVERY DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD

approval or disapproval of their behaviour. developmental

task as “task which arises at or about a certain period in life of
an individual, successful achievements of which of which
leads to its happiness and success with later tasks, while
failure leads to unhappiness in the individual, disapproval by
society, and difficulty within later tasks”

BOX 2-9 HAVIGHURST'S DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

FOR CHILDHOOD
BIRTH TO 6 YEARS
· Leaming to walk
· Learning to take solid foods
· Learning to talk
· Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
· Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
· Achieving physiological stability
· Forming simple concepts of social and physical reality ·
Learning to relate oneself emotionally to parents. siblings, and
other people

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· Learning to distinguish right and wrong and developing a
conscience
6 TO 12 YEARS
· Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
· Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing
organism
· Learning to get along with age-mates
· Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine sex role
· Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and
calculating
· Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
· Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values
· Achieving personal independence
· Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions

Purposes of Developmental Tasks

First, they act as guidelines to help parents and teachers to
know what children should learn at a given age
Second, developmental tasks serve as motivating forces for
children to learn what the social group expects them to learn
at that age.
Third, developmental tasks tell parents and teachers what will
be expected of children in the immediate and remote future

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FACTORS INFLUENCING MASTERY OF
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

A number of factors influence the mastery of develop- mental

tasks; some act as obstacles to this mastery and some aid it.
Some of these factors are control- label, as in the case of
opportunities to learn. Others, as is true of body build and
intelligence, are either not controllable or are controllable
only within narrow limits.

IMPORTANCE OF MASTERING DEVELOPMENTAL

TASKS

First, it makes the child feel inferior, and this leads to

unhappiness. Second, it results in social disapproval, which is
often accompanied by social rejection. The child is considered
im- mature and babyish. Third, it makes the mastery of new
developmental tasks difficult. Each year, the child will lag
further and further behind. developmental tasks set by social
group are rewarded by social and self-approval, both of these
contributes to happiness

IX. Every Area of Development Has Potential Hazards

Even when the developmental pattern is progressing normally,
there are likely to be, at every age, hazards in some areas of
development that interfere with this normal pattern. Some of
these hazards are environmental in origin while others
originate from within. As a result, they change the
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developmental pattern by producing a plateau in which no
forward movement occurs or they cause a regression to a
lower stage. When this happens. the child encounters
adjustment problems and is said to be "poorly adjusted" or
"immature."

IMPORTANCE OF FOREWARNING OF HAZARDS

Forewarning of potential hazards associated with different

areas of development is important because it enables those
who are responsible for guiding the child's development-
mainly parents and teachers -to be ready to cope with the
causes of these hazards and, equally important, to take steps
toward them off. knowing that during the early stages of
learning to talk almost all children begin to stutter or slur
when they become excited, parents can ward off this speech
hazard by keeping the environment from being too stimulating
and by calming their children when they become excited.

X. HAPPINESS VARIES AT DIFFERENT PERIODS IN

DEVELOPMENT

PERIODS OF HAPPINESS AND UNHAPPINESS

some ages are, predictably, happier than others. Babyhood is,

for the most part, one of the happiest periods in the life-span.
This is because almost everyone-adults and children-find the

34 | P a g e
helplessness of babies appealing and they try to make babies
happy. Some babies, however, are unwanted, neglected, and
mistreated. For them, babyhood can be a very un- happy age.
Typically, the second year of life is less happy than the first.
During this year, babies are often fretful and irritable when
teething, and this makes them less ap- pealing. They dislike
being babied, and in showing their independence, become
resistant and hard to handle. They resent being frustrated in
what they want to do by disciplinary techniques that may
include slaps and spanks. Finally, many babies are made
unhappy during the second year of life by the arrival of a new
sibling who becomes the centre of parental attention in late
child- hood. As a result, it is one of the happiest periods of the
life-span).

ESSENTIALS OF HAPPINESS

Acceptance means not only acceptance by others but also

acceptance of self. The more accepted children are by others,
the more affection they will receive from them. For children
to be happy, their achievement must be in an area regarded as
important to the members of the social group with they are
identify. children’s happiness depends on their reaching of the
goals they set for themselves. one of the biggest obstacles to
happiness in childhood is the setting of unrealistically high
goals

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 Childhood in different context:
(1) Poverty (2) Child labour (3) Child abuses (4) Child protection

CHILDHOOD AND POVERTY

Impact of Poverty on Underprivileged Children
When we analyze the condition of underprivileged children,
we can easily see the short-lived and long-term effects of
poverty on them. In this, the biggest impact can be seen on:

1. Limited Access to Education

Based on a survey, in 2014, the number of out-of-school
children decreased to an estimated 6.1 million from 13.46
million in 2006. Out of 100 pupils, 29% of girls and boys drop
out before finishing the entire cycle of primary education, and
these are frequently the most marginalized youngsters .

2. Malnutrition and Health Issues

About 7.44 crore children under the age of six were measured,
out of whom 37% of them were stunted, 17% were
underweight, and 6% children under 5 years are wasted.
Health is another irrefutable area of a child’s life that gets
ignored in poverty-ridden families. As NFHS 4 2016 shows,
every 3rd child under 5 years of age in India is
stunted/severely malnourished. This is also due to a lack of

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awareness that leads to severe health issues early in life. Many
children do not receive complete immunizations, adequate
diet etc. which worsens their condition.
Limited access to healthcare worsens these challenges,
contributing to high infant mortality rates due to inadequate
maternal care and post-birth support.

3. Child Labour

Due to financial difficulties, kids end up working early in life,

doing jobs in places like restaurants, shops, or factories. This
situation not only takes away their chance to enjoy childhood
but also affects their growth. These children miss out on
school and face limited opportunities, making it harder for
them to have a brighter future.
Poverty also gives rise to another major social issue in India
that is multiplying at an alarming rate – child labour.
According to the Census 2011, there are more than 10 million
(under the age of 14) working children in India. Many
families send off their children to do odd jobs (restaurants,
shops, factories and other illegal activities) to bring in some
money to feed the many starving bellies. For a child, working
is mentally, physically, and emotionally traumatic during their
impressionable years. It deprives him of a chance at a brighter
future and keeps him stuck in the cycle of poverty.

4. Lack of Adequate Housing and Sanitation

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Many communities in India suffer from poor housing
conditions, lacking proper infrastructure and sanitation.
Overcrowded and unsanitary living situations are some of the
biggest reasons why there are so many contagious diseases
widespread in the slums of India. On top of that, limited
access to clean water and sanitation facilities exponentially
increases the risks and challenges for children.

5. Vulnerability to Exploitation and Trafficking

Children who lack privilege are more vulnerable to
exploitation, particularly by traffickers seeking to exploit
them. They often focus on areas with acute poverty, where
kids have fewer opportunities and resources.
This exploitation can show up in different ways, like making
kids do child labour, forcing them into child marriages, or
getting them involved in much worse situations. This makes
life even harder for these children and puts their well-being at
serious risk.

6. Impact on Girls

The feminisation of poverty among girls and women happens

when more of them are affected by poverty, especially if they
are single, widowed, or divorced. Many girls in India don't
have the chance to go to school or get job training, limiting
their options for good jobs and better pay. This makes it tough
for them to gather wealth and assets over time.

38 | P a g e
This isn't just it; domestic violence and abusive relationships
are quite common in this section of society. Violence at home,
especially against girls and women, can keep them trapped in
poverty, limiting their ability to leave abusive relationships
and find steady jobs.
The impact of poverty in India has even more life-threatening
effects. Poverty is a relentless cycle where those affected lack
resources. Escaping it requires more resources, creating a
challenging cycle of need. This cycle needs to be addressed
soon.
Conclusion
If we want to do something to break this cycle of despair, we
need to know that children can't do this alone. They need
resources, which is the most important thing that they lack.
So, we must join hands to give them joint efforts. Only then
we can able to uplift the lives of these unprivileged children in
India and reduce effect of poverty on their lives.

CHILD LABOUR

The International Labour Organization (ILO) defines

child labor as work that is mentally, physically, socially, or
morally dangerous and harmful to children (under 18 of age )
and interferes with their schooling by:
1. Depriving them of the opportunity to attend school.
2. Forcing them to leave school prematurely.
39 | P a g e
 3. Requiring them to attempt to combine school attendance
with excessively long and heavy work.
Child labor is generally defined as work that:
• Is performed by children below the minimum age for that
type of work, as specified by national legislation and
international standards
• Includes hazardous work that is harmful to a child’s
health, safety, or morals and is prohibited for all
individuals under 18 years of age.

Census 2011 Data:

• Total child laborers (ages 5–14): 10.1 million, which is
3.9% of the total child population of 259.6 million
• Decline since 2001: A reduction of 2.6 million child
laborers
• Recent Statistics:
• ILO and UNICEF (2022): Globally, child labor rose to
160 million due to the pandemic; in India, the trend
increased with many children joining informal work
sectors.
• Post-COVID Increase: A twofold rise in children
working in industries like brick kilns and spice farms has
been observed.
Geographic Focus:

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 Highest numbers of child labor cases are found in states
such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, and Maharashtra

Causes of child labour

1. Poverty
Poverty is the most significant driver of child labour in India.
Families living in poverty often have no choice but to rely on
their children's labour to make ends meet. Parents struggling
to provide basic necessities, such as food, shelter, and
clothing, see child labour as a means of economic survival.
2. Economic Pressures on Families
Families burdened with economic pressures due to
unemployment, underemployment, or mounting debts may
resort to child labour as a means of supplementing their
meager income. This is often a heartbreaking choice made out
of sheer desperation.
3. Lack of Quality Education

The absence of quality education is a significant barrier to

breaking the cycle of child labour. Many children in India do
not have access to proper schools, or if they do, the quality of
education may be subpar. When quality education is not
accessible, children are more likely to enter the workforce
prematurely.
4. Lack of Child Labor Awareness

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A lack of awareness about the detrimental effects of child
labour perpetuates the problem. Some families may not fully
comprehend the physical, psychological, and emotional toll
that child labour takes on their children.
5. Conflicts & Mass Migration
Conflict situations and mass migrations, whether due to
internal strife, natural disasters, or economic instability,
disrupt families and expose children to the harsh realities of
labour. In such situations, children often find themselves
without a proper support system.
6. Gender Disparities
Gender disparities are a significant contributor to child labour,
as girls, in particular, often face discrimination and are more
likely to be engaged in unpaid domestic labour. This deprives
them of the opportunity to receive an education and enjoy
their childhood.

7. Natural Disasters & Climate Change

Natural disasters, including floods, droughts, and other
climate-related events, disproportionately affect marginalised
communities. When families lose their livelihoods due to
environmental factors, children are pushed into labour to
support their families.

8. Demand for Cheap Labour

The demand for cheap labour in various industries, including
agriculture, manufacturing, and domestic work, perpetuates

42 | P a g e
child labour. Employers seeking to cut costs may exploit
children who are often unaware of their rights or unable to
defend themselves.

9. Lack of Stringent Legislation

Weak or poorly enforced legislation allows child labour to
persist. India has made progress in enacting laws to combat
child labour, but gaps remain, and enforcement can be lax.

10. Lure of Cheap Labour

In certain cases, adolescent children are drawn to the labour
market due to the perception that it offers them an opportunity
to earn money, and they may be enticed by the prospect of
independence.

How to Avoid Child Labour?

A comprehensive approach is key to addressing child labour.
Such an approach must tackle the root causes and the effects
of this pervasive problem. One of the primary and major
causes of child labour is poverty, where families are made to
send their children to work to fulfil daily needs and
supplement household income. Other reasons for child labour
in India include lack of access to quality education, proper
exposure, cultural norms, and inadequate legal enforcement.
To effectively combat child labour, it is essential to address
the causes of child labour and provide families with
sustainable alternatives. This includes implementing poverty

43 | P a g e
alleviation measures, promoting accessible and affordable
education, and raising awareness about the detrimental effects
of child labour in India on a child's physical, mental, and
emotional development.
How We Can Stop Child Labour in India?
It is extremely necessary to stop child labour in India to see a
nation that is booming and prospering. Indian Government
has incorporated many regulations to prevent child labour
such as making employment below 14 years a punishable
offense. But it is the responsibility of every individual to do
their bit. Here are some of the essential ways how the citizens
of India can help in controlling childhood labour in the
country.
1. Educate & Spread Awareness

Most childhood labour is a result of unawareness among

parents. Traffickers mostly target children of such parents who
are illiterate and such children end up being in the pithole of
child labour. It is extremely essential to educate such parents
and spread awareness about the different child rights in India
as well as the reasons why educating children is essential.
Also, when the bad consequences of child labour are
explained in a proper way, many parents mold their minds and
look toward the development of their children.
2. Create Awareness of the Laws & Policies
A strict law is extremely essential to curb the situation of child
labour. India has come up with Article 24 according to which
no children below the age of 14 years should be engaged in

44 | P a g e
any hazardous environment for work. Different NGOs are
working on these policies and laws along with the authorities
to prevent child labour.
3. Educate Child Labourer's Parents
While spreading awareness has motivated many parents to
enrol their children in schools, there are still many parents
who consider earning more important than education. Often
major problems in India and their solutions require one-to-one
conversation. Hence, it is essential to have a discussion with
such parents to understand their problems and then offer a
solution to eradicate child labour.
4. Stop people to employ children in homes, shops,
factories, etc
One of the major reasons why child labour is not reduced is
that people do not stop employing children. So, responsible
citizens of India should take preventive measures to stop other
people from employing children in homes, shops, and
factories. One of the ways is to stop buying items from a shop
that has employed a child for work. When children will stop
getting work, half of the issue will get solved here. These
children will go to school rather to make a great future.
5. Partner With NGOs
It's evident that individuals may feel limited in their ability to
address the issue beyond raising awareness and engaging with
parents in their immediate community. Therefore, to make a
broader impact on society, one solution to combat child labor
involves participating in various movements and campaigns
organized by NGOs. These NGOs focus on grassroots efforts
to achieve tangible outcomes. Collaborating with relevant
45 | P a g e
authorities further enhances the effectiveness of such
initiatives. Simply by partnering with these NGOs, individuals
can contribute to the collective effort to combat child labor
and support initiatives aimed at its eradication.
6. Send more children to school

Two of the major reasons for child labour are poverty and
labour problems in India. Most parents cannot afford
education for their children and so they consider children to
be a useful resource for employment. But today there are so
many solutions of child labour such as free elementary
education, mid-day meals, and others that can surely motivate
children as well as their parents. It is only that parents should
be educated about these schemes and ultimately send more
children to school.
While child labour is one of the major problems in India and
their solutions are still being incorporated, many individuals
have succeeded in prevention of child labour and offering a
dignified life to many children so that they can cherish their
childhood like other children. Governments can just make
policies, following them and preventing child labour from
occurring is the responsibility of the citizens.

Impact of Child Labour on Mental and Physical Health

Child labour has a profound and detrimental impact on both
the mental and physical health of children. For instance,
children engaged in labour often suffer from malnutrition,
lack of proper healthcare, and exposure to hazardous

46 | P a g e
environments, which can impair their physical growth and
development. Other ways that child labour impacts these kids
physically are:
1. Injuries and disabilities
Children are frequently employed in dangerous occupations,
such as mining, construction, or manufacturing, where they
are at high risk of sustaining injuries, disabilities, or even
losing their lives due to accidents or exposure to toxic
substances.
2. Exposure to health hazards
Child labourers are commonly exposed to harmful conditions,
including excessive noise, dust, chemicals, or extreme
temperatures, which can lead to respiratory problems, skin
diseases, and other chronic health issues.
Not only that, but children involved in labour, particularly in
exploitative or abusive situations, can experience
psychological trauma, anxiety, depression, and low self-
esteem, which can have long-lasting effects on their mental
well-being. Other impacts of child labour on their physical
health include:
• Lack of education and socialisation: Child labourers
often miss out on educational opportunities and
socialisation with peers, which are crucial for their
cognitive and social development and prospects.
• Emotional and behavioural problems: The stress and
trauma associated with child labour can manifest in
emotional and behavioural problems, such as aggression,

47 | P a g e
 withdrawal, or substance abuse, further compounding
their mental health challenges.
• Lack of childhood: Child labourers are deprived of their
childhood, missing out on play, leisure, and other
activities essential for their overall development and
well-being.

Types of Child Labour in India

1. Agricultural Labour
A substantial number of children find themselves toiling in the
fields, engaging in various agricultural activities. These
children are often subjected to arduous conditions, working in
environments where exposure to harmful pesticides and
machinery poses significant risks.
2. Domestic Labour
Child labour is prevalent in domestic settings, where children,
predominantly girls, are engaged in household chores. This
form of exploitation involves long hours of work, and
minimal wages, and, in some instances, exposes children to
physical and emotional abuse within private households.
3. Manufacturing and Industries
The manufacturing and industrial sectors witness the
exploitation of child labour, with children engaged in
activities ranging from brick kilns to garment factories. The
hazardous conditions in these environments pose risks to the
health and well-being of the children involved.
4. Street and Service Sector

48 | P a g e
Children on the streets are often coerced into various forms of
labour, including begging, rag-picking, and vending.
Additionally, the service sector, comprising small-scale
enterprises and roadside eateries, witness the exploitation of
child labour.
Some of the other types include:
1. Debt Slavery: Children are coerced to work to pay off
family debts, often in exploitative conditions. They are
trapped in this cycle, unable to escape or access
education.
2. Sex Trafficking: Children are trafficked and forced into
prostitution or pornography. This egregious form of child
labor severely affects their physical and mental well-
being.
3. Armed Conflict: Children are recruited as soldiers,
messengers, or informants in armed groups. Many are
subjected to violence, deprived of education, and
exposed to life-threatening dangers.
4. Forced Criminal Activities: Children are exploited in
illegal acts such as drug trafficking, theft, or begging
rings, risking punishment while receiving no benefits or
support.
5. Mining: Children work in hazardous mines to extract
minerals like gold or cobalt. They face exposure to toxic
substances, injuries, and long hours in unsafe
environments.

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CHILD ABUSE

According to UNICEF, child abuse refers to any form of

physical, emotional, or sexual harm, neglect, or exploitation
that results in actual or potential harm to a child’s health,
survival, development, or dignity. This can occur in the
context of a relationship of responsibility, trust, or power.

How to identify abuse

1. The child may show unexplainable changes in behaviour or
personality
2. The child may withdraw himself/ herself from activities ,
social interaction , interaction with friends and/or family,
etc.
3. The child might experience anxiety/fear/depression
4. The child may undergo sleeping problems like insomnia or
constant recurring nightmares, etc
5. The child may avoid physical contact with adults / peers
6. The child may lack social skills
7. May show unexplained bruises /burns / scars
8. The child may commit self-harm
9. The child may show frequent absences in school or might
refuse to attend school
10. The child may avoid school or certain situations
11. Poor growth and development are one of the signs of
abuse
12. May have extreme weight gain or weight loss

50 | P a g e
 Types of Child Abuse
1. Physical Abuse
Physical abuse refers to intentional physical harm or
force used against a child.
o Characteristics: Visible injuries like bruises, burns,
fractures, or cuts.
o Examples: Hitting, slapping, burning, choking, or
other harmful physical acts.
o Effects: May result in lifelong physical disabilities,
psychological trauma, and trust issues.
2. Emotional (Psychological) Abuse
Emotional abuse involves behavior that undermines a
child’s sense of self-worth or emotional well-being.
o Characteristics: Persistent criticism, belittling, or
humiliation.
o Examples: Mocking, isolating, withholding love or
approval, or blaming a child unfairly.
o Effects: Can lead to anxiety, depression, low self-
esteem, and difficulty forming relationships.
3. Verbal Abuse
Verbal abuse is a specific form of emotional abuse
involving harmful language.
o Characteristics: Frequent yelling, name-calling, or
shaming.
o Examples: Insults like “You’re worthless,” threats,
or sarcastic remarks intended to demean.

51 | P a g e
 o Effects: Damages self-confidence, leading to long-
term emotional and psychological scars.
4. Sexual Abuse
Sexual abuse includes any sexual activity involving a
child who cannot consent or comprehend the act.
o Characteristics: Includes both physical and non-
physical forms of abuse.
o Examples: Inappropriate touching, exposing a child
to sexual content, or coercing them into sexual acts.
o Effects: Victims often experience severe trauma,
guilt, PTSD, and problems with trust and intimacy.
5. Exploitation
Exploitation involves using a child for profit, power, or
other personal gain, often violating their rights and well-
being.
o Characteristics: Economic, labor, or sexual
exploitation.
o Examples: Forced labor, trafficking, sexual
exploitation for monetary gain.
o Effects: Causes physical harm, emotional trauma,
and perpetuates cycles of abuse and poverty.

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 *imp
How abuse can prevent growth and development of a child?

Abuse can have a profound and lasting impact on a child's

growth and development, affecting them physically,
emotionally, socially, and cognitively. Here's how:
1. Physical Growth
• Health Issues: Physical abuse, such as hitting or neglect,
can result in injuries, malnutrition, or chronic health
problems.
• Brain Development: Chronic stress from abuse disrupts
brain development, particularly in regions like the
prefrontal cortex (responsible for decision-making) and
the amygdala (responsible for emotional regulation).
2. Emotional and Psychological Development
• Low Self-Esteem: Children who experience abuse often
internalize feelings of worthlessness, leading to poor
self-image.
• Mental Health Problems: They are at higher risk of
anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), and self-harming behaviors.
• Emotional Dysregulation: Abused children may struggle
to manage their emotions, leading to anger outbursts or
withdrawal.
3. Cognitive Development

53 | P a g e
 • Learning Difficulties: Abuse can impair attention,
memory, and executive functioning, making it harder for
the child to succeed in school.
• Delayed Development: Neglect, in particular, can result
in developmental delays, as the child may lack
stimulation or access to education.
4. Social Development
• Trust Issues: Abuse undermines a child’s ability to trust
others, making it difficult to form healthy relationships.
• Aggression or Isolation: Some abused children become
aggressive, mirroring the violence they’ve experienced,
while others withdraw from social interactions
altogether.
5. Behavioral Consequences
• Risky Behaviors: As a coping mechanism, some children
may engage in risky behaviors like substance abuse or
delinquency.
• Perpetuation of Abuse Cycle: Without intervention,
abused children are more likely to repeat abusive patterns
in their own relationships.
Long-Term Effects
If unaddressed, the trauma from abuse can persist into
adulthood, affecting mental health, relationships, and the
ability to lead a fulfilling life.

54 | P a g e
How to prevent child abuse

1. Educating and Empowering Parents and Caregivers

• Parenting Programs: Provide resources and training on
positive parenting techniques, stress management, and
non-violent discipline.
• Support Networks: Establish parent support groups to
reduce isolation and offer guidance during challenging
times.
• Education on Child Development: Help parents
understand age-appropriate behaviors to reduce
frustration.

2. Strengthening Community Support

• Awareness Campaigns: Use media, schools, and
community centers to raise awareness about child abuse
and its signs.
• Accessible Resources: Ensure families have access to
housing, healthcare, mental health services, and childcare
support to reduce stressors.
• Community Vigilance: Encourage neighbors and
communities to look out for at-risk children and report
concerns.

3. Empowering Children

55 | P a g e
 • Education on Boundaries: Teach children about their
rights, safe and unsafe touches, and how to say "no."
• Safe Communication Channels: Ensure children know
they can talk to trusted adults or use helplines if they feel
unsafe.

4. Strengthening Legal Frameworks

• Mandatory Reporting Laws: Require professionals
working with children to report suspected abuse.
• Strict Penalties for Abusers: Enforce laws that penalize
perpetrators of child abuse.
• Background Checks: Conduct thorough background
checks for individuals working with children.

5. Early Intervention
• Identify At-Risk Families: Social workers, teachers, and
healthcare providers should identify families under stress
and intervene early.
• Home Visitation Programs: Offer regular visits by
trained professionals to provide parenting support and
monitor for signs of abuse.

6. Promoting Mental Health

• Counseling Services: Provide accessible mental health
services for families facing challenges.

56 | P a g e
 • Substance Abuse Treatment: Support parents struggling
with addiction, as it is often linked to child abuse.

7. Encouraging Reporting
• Helplines and Hotlines: Promote the use of child abuse
hotlines for reporting anonymously.
• Trust in Authorities: Build trust in child protection
agencies to ensure timely reporting and action.

8. Building a Culture of Non-Violence

• Model Positive Behaviors: Encourage adults to model
empathy and respect in their interactions.
• School-Based Programs: Teach children conflict
resolution, empathy, and the importance of respectful
communication.

9. Supporting Survivors
• Trauma-Informed Care: Ensure children who
experience abuse receive counseling and rehabilitation.
• Foster Safe Environments: Place children in nurturing
foster care or with relatives if their home environment is
unsafe.

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 CHILD REARING PRACTICES

PARENTING STYLE

Parenting styles are psychological constructs that describe

the standard strategies parents use to raise their children.
These styles are characterized by the levels of
responsiveness (the degree of warmth and support parents
provide) and demandingness (the level of control and
expectations they enforce). The way parents balance these
dimensions influences a child's emotional, social, and
cognitive development.
There are four types of parenting styles namely:
Authoritarian
Permissive
Democratic
Uninvolved

As it gradually became apparent that neither the

authoritarian nor the permissive techniques served the goals
of making morally mature people, a fourth disciplinary
technique has evolved, known as "democratic discipline."
This embodies the good features of the earlier forms and
omits many of the weaknesses or bad features of them.

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 Kinds of Disciplinary Techniques
A brief description of each of the four kinds of disciplinary
techniques will serve to show what the characteristics of
each are and will emphasize their good and bad features.

AUTHORITARIAN DISCIPLINARY TECHNIQUES

Strict rules and regulations to enforce the desired behavior

characterize all kinds of authoritarian discipline.
Techniques include severe punishment for failure to come
up to expected standards and little or no recognition, praise,
or other signs of approval when the child meets the
expected standards.
Authoritarian discipline may range from reasonable
restraints on the child's behavior to rigid restraints that
permit no freedom of action except that which conforms to
prescribed standards. Authoritarian discipline always means
control through external force in the form of punishment,
especially corporal punishment.
Even as children grow older, parents who use rigid
authoritarian control rarely relax their control or abandon
corporal punishment. Furthermore, they do not encourage
children to make decisions regarding their acts. Instead,
they tell them what to do, but they do not tell them why
they should do it. Thus, children are deprived of
opportunities to learn how to control their own behavior.
In families where authoritarian discipline is more
reasonable, children are still restricted in what they may do
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 and decisions for their acts are made for them. Their wishes
are not completely disregarded, however, and there are
fewer irrational restrictions, such as forbidding children to
do what their peers do.

PERMISSIVE DISCIPLINARY TECHNIQUES

Permissive discipline is really little or no discipline. It does

not usually guide the child into socially approved patterns
of behaviour and does not employ punishment. Some
parents and teachers, mistaking permissiveness for laissez
faire, allow children to grope through situations too difficult
for them to cope with alone with no guidance or control.
For many parents, permissive discipline is a protest against
the rigid and harsh discipline under which they were
brought up. In such cases, children often have no limits or
boundaries set on what they may do; they are permitted to
make their own decisions and act on them in practically any
way they wish.

DEMOCRATIC DISCIPLINARY TECHNIQUES

Democratic methods of discipline employ explanation,

discussion, and reasoning to help children understand why
they are expected to behave in a certain way. They
emphasize the educational aspect of discipline rather than
the punitive.

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 When children are young, they are given explanations of
the rules they are expected to conform to in words they can
understand. For example, if there is a rule that they must
not touch the kitchen stove, they are told it will hurt them
or they are shown, by having their hands held close to the
stove, what "hurt" means and why they must not touch the
stove. As they grow older, they are not only given
explanations of the rules but they are given opportunities to
express their opinions about the rules. If, for example, the
rules differ from those of their friends, parents give them an
opportunity to explain why they feel they should not be
expected to conform to rules their friends do not have to
conform to. If their reasons seem valid, parents who use
democratic discipline are usually willing to modify or
change the rules.
Democratic discipline uses punishments and rewards, with
more emphasis on rewards than on punishment. Punishment
is never harsh and it usually takes forms other than corporal
punishment. It is used only when there is evidence that
children have wilfully refused to do what was expected of
them. When children's behavior comes up to expected
standards, the democratic disciplinarian rewards them with
praise or some other expression of approval.
The fundamental philosophy behind democratic discipline
is that it will teach children to develop control over their
behavior so that they will do what is right even when there
is no one standing over them to threaten them with
punishment if they do what they are not supposed to do.
This internal control over behavior comes from educating

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 children to behave in an approved manner and by showing
them the rewards for doing so.

UNINVOLVED

The uninvolved parenting style, also referred to as

neglectful parenting, is a style where parents exhibit low
responsiveness to their children’s emotional and
developmental needs while also maintaining low
expectations for their behavior and achievements. This
parenting style is often characterized by a lack of warmth,
communication, structure, and guidance.

Uninvolved parenting is marked by an absence of active

participation in the child's life. While parents may meet
basic physical needs (e.g., food, clothing, and shelter), they
are generally disengaged from their children’s emotional,
social, and educational development. This style may arise
from various causes, such as personal struggles, stress, or
lack of parenting knowledge, but its impact on children is
consistently linked to adverse developmental outcomes.

Characteristics
1. Minimal Emotional Involvement
o Parents are emotionally detached, showing little
affection, support, or interest in their child’s
experiences or well-being.

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 2. Limited Communication
o Conversations between parent and child are rare,
and parents often avoid meaningful engagement or
discussion.
3. Lack of Supervision
o Rules, expectations, and boundaries are either
unclear or completely absent. Children are often left
to make decisions on their own without guidance.
4. Focus on Basic Needs
o Parents may fulfill the minimum requirements for
the child’s survival (food, shelter, clothing) but
neglect emotional or developmental support.
5. Absence of Discipline
o Discipline is rarely enforced, and when it is, it tends
to be inconsistent or punitive rather than
constructive.
6. Low Responsiveness
o Parents are unresponsive to their child’s emotional
cues, concerns, or achievements, leading to a lack of
validation for the child.
7. Parental Prioritization of Self
o The parents’ own needs, struggles, or distractions
(e.g., work, addiction, mental health issues) often
take precedence over their responsibilities as
caregivers.

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 Discipline
The popular concept of "discipline" is synonymous with
"punishment." According to this concept. discipline is used
only when the child violates the rules and regulations set
down by parents, teachers, or adults in charge of the affairs
of the community in which the child lives.
Discipline comes from the same word as "disciple" one
who learns from or voluntarily follows a leader. The parents
and teachers are the leaders, and the child is the disciple
who learns from them the ways of life that lead to
usefulness and happiness. Discipline is thus society's way
of teaching the child the moral behavior approved by the
group .
The goal of all discipline is to mold behavior so that it will
conform to the roles prescribed by the cultural group with
which the individual is identified. As there is no single
cultural pattern. there is no overall philosophy of child
training to influence the disciplinary methods used. Thus
the specific methods used within a cultural group vary
widely, even though they all have the same objective-to
teach children how to behave in a way that conforms to the
standards of the social group with which they are identified

Punishment

Punishment
The second essential of discipline is punishment.
Punishment comes from the Latin verb, punire, and means
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 to impose a penalty on a person for a fault, offense, or
violation in retribution or retaliation. Although not
specifically said, it implies that this fault, offense, or
violation was intentional in the sense that the person knew
that the act was wrong but intentionally carried it out.
In the case of young children, one cannot assume that they
wilfully carry out a forbidden act unless there is evidence
that they had already understood and learned the rules the
social group-whether parents or teachers-had taught them.
However, as children grow older, it is assumed that they
have been taught what is right and what is wrong.
Consequently, it is assumed that any misbehavior is
[Link] assumptions are, by. no means, always
correct. Even if children know a rule, this is not foolproof
evidence, as was pointed out in the discussion of rules, that
they understand the complete meaning of the rule. Under
such conditions, punishment for wronging is justified only
if it has an educational value. And by the time children
comprehend the meaning of words well enough to
understand rules, verbal explanations should replace
punishment.

Rules

The first essential of discipline is rules. Rules, as was

explained earlier, are prescribed patterns for conduct. These
prescribed patterns may be set by parents, teachers, or
playmates. Their purpose is to supply children with
guidelines for approved behavior in that particular situation.
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 In the case of school rules, for example, they tell children
what they must and must not do while in the schoolroom,
the school corridors, the school lunchroom, the washrooms,
or on the school playground. They do not, on the other
hand, tell children what they must not do at home, in the
neighborhood, or in a play group that is unsupervised by
teachers.
Similarly, home rules tell children what they must and must
not do in the home or in their relationships with family
members-they must not take their siblings' possessions,
must not "talk back" to their

Rewards

The third essential in discipline is the use of rewards. The

term "reward" means any form of appreciation for an
attainment. It does not have to be in the form of a material
possession. Instead, it can be a word of approval, a smile,
or a pat on the back.
As the term suggests, rewards follow attainments.
Consequently, they differ from bribes, which are promises
of rewards used to induce an act. Bribes are, consequently,
given before the act, rather than after the act, as in the case
of rewards.
Many parents and teachers feel that rewards are
unnecessary because children should behave in a socially
approved way without having to be "paid" for it. Others feel
that rewards will weaken children's motivation to do what

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 they should do. Consequently, they use rewards far less
frequently than punishments. This is especially true as
children grow older.

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 EFFECTS OF DIVORCE, SINGLE
PARENTHOOD FAMILY

DIVORCE AND SEPARATED

Effects of Divorce and Separation on Children
Divorce and separation can have profound psychological,
emotional, and behavioral effects on children, depending on
their age, stage of development, and coping mechanisms.
While each child reacts differently, several common
patterns emerge based on research and observations.

Definition and Meaning

• Divorce: The legal dissolution of a marriage, which
often leads to the restructuring of a family unit.
• Separation: When parents choose to live apart without
formally divorcing. Both scenarios disrupt the traditional
family structure and can impact children deeply.
• Explanation: Children of divorced or separated parents
experience a significant change in their environment,
relationships, and daily routines, leading to feelings of
loss, insecurity, and fear of abandonment.

Emotional and Behavioral Effects

Sense of Basic Security

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 • Divorce often shakes a child's basic sense of safety and
stability.
• Examples: A child who once felt secure in a two-parent
household may fear future instability, such as losing a
home or the love of one parent.

Deep Sadness, Sorrow, and Fear of Rejection

• Children may feel rejected by the parent who moves out
or becomes less involved.
• Example: An eight-year-old girl who no longer sees her
father regularly may develop fears of rejection in future
relationships.

Feelings of Guilt and Loneliness

• Some children mistakenly believe they caused the
divorce.
• Example: A six-year-old might think their misbehavior
or poor grades contributed to their parents' separation.

Not Belonging in the Family

• Children may feel caught between two parents, leading
to feelings of alienation.
• Example: A teenager might avoid family events because
they feel they must choose sides, resulting in
estrangement from one or both parents.

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 Age and Stage of Developmental Reactions
1. Infants (0–2 years):
o Sense emotional tension in the household.
o Behavioral Effects:
▪ Difficulty forming attachments.
▪ Trouble sleeping and eating.
o Example: A baby may cry more frequently or cling
excessively to one parent.
2. Toddlers (2–5 years):
o Limited understanding of divorce but sense
disruption.
o Behavioral Effects:
▪ Increased tantrums.
▪ Overly agreeable or unusually irritable.
▪ Changes in play behavior.
o Example: A three-year-old may become clingy and
regress to earlier developmental behaviors, such as
thumb-sucking.
3. Childhood (6–12 years):
o Begin to comprehend divorce but feel powerless.
o Behavioral Effects:
▪ Feelings of worthlessness.
▪ Difficulties concentrating at school.
▪ Abdominal pain and crying.
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 ▪ Decline in academic performance.
o Example: A 10-year-old might start withdrawing
from friends and struggle with homework.
4. Teenagers (13+ years):
o Greater understanding but more intense emotional
responses.
o Behavioral Effects:
▪ Anger and anxiety.
▪ Criticism of one or both parents.
▪ Irresponsible behaviors like substance use.
o Example: A 15-year-old may argue frequently with
their parents and isolate themselves.

Emotional and Social Impact of Divorce on Children

Stress from Change and Loss
• Divorce involves significant changes, including moving
homes, switching schools, or losing daily contact with
one parent.
• Example: A child may experience anxiety adjusting to a
new school environment or routine.
Fear of Abandonment
• Some children fear that if one parent leaves, the other
may too.
• Example: A child who spends weekends with one parent
may worry about being left alone in either home.

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 Loss of Attachment
• Reduced interaction with one parent can weaken the
bond.
• Example: A child who sees their non-custodial parent
less frequently may feel emotionally distant.

Stages of Grief in Children Experiencing Divorce

1. Shock and Denial:
o Refusal to accept the reality of the divorce.
o Example: A child may believe their parents will
reconcile soon.
2. Anger and Bargaining:
o Anger at the situation and attempts to negotiate
parental reconciliation.
o Example: A teenager might express frustration by
acting out at school.
3. Anxiety, Depression, and Guilt:
o Feelings of sadness and personal responsibility.
o Example: A child may isolate themselves or exhibit
signs of depression.
4. Masked Depression:
o Symptoms include withdrawal, regression, and loss
of appetite.
o Example: A six-year-old may suddenly want to
sleep in their parent's bed again.

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 5. Acceptance Phase:
o Gradual adaptation to the new family structure.
o Example: A teenager may restore confidence and
adjust to a dual-household routine.

Age-Specific Reactions to Divorce

1. Ages 5–8:
o Reactions: Fearfulness, insecurity, sadness, guilt,
and abandonment.
o Example: A six-year-old may become overly
attached to the custodial parent.
2. Age 9:
o Reactions: Anger, loneliness, shock, rejection of one
parent.
o Example: A nine-year-old may refuse to spend time
with the non-custodial parent.
3. Adolescents (12+):
o Reactions: Self-blame, sadness, acting out,
aggression.
o Example: A 14-year-old may rebel by skipping
school or engaging in risky behaviors.

Coping with Separation

Parental Support

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 • Example: Parents attending counseling together to create
consistent rules for the child.
Teamwork and Clear Boundaries
• Example: Establishing a routine where both parents
remain equally involved.
High Information Exchange
• Example: Regularly updating the other parent about
school events or medical appointments.
Constructive Problem-Solving
• Example: Resolving disputes without involving the
child, reducing their stress.

Conclusion
Divorce and separation affect children differently based on
their age, personality, and environment. Providing support,
fostering open communication, and maintaining stability
can help children cope effectively, allowing them to adjust
to the new family dynamic with resilience.

SINGLE PARENT FAMILIES

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 A single-parent family is a family unit where one parent is
responsible for raising the children, either due to the
absence of the other parent or by choice.
Causes of Single Parenthood
Single-parent families arise for various reasons, including:
1. Divorce: Separation or dissolution of marriage often
leads to one parent taking primary custody of the child.
2. Death of a Parent: The loss of a spouse may leave one
parent solely responsible for raising children.
3. Early Pregnancy: Teenage or early pregnancy may
result in single parenting when a partner is absent or
uninvolved.
4. Adoption: Individuals adopting children as single
parents become the sole caregivers.
5. Donor Insemination: Some individuals choose single
parenthood through medical procedures like sperm
donation.

Effects of Single Parenthood on Children

1. Academic Achievements
• Children in single-parent households may face
challenges due to limited parental involvement in
academics, often stemming from work-related
constraints.
• Some studies link single parenthood to slightly lower
academic performance compared to two-parent

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 households, though supportive environments can
mitigate this.
2. Emotional Effects
• Negative Effects:
o Feelings of abandonment or rejection if one parent
is absent.
o Increased anxiety or stress due to changes in family
dynamics or financial struggles.
• Coping Abilities: Children may develop resilience and
independence over time in supportive settings.
3. Positive Effects
• Greater maturity and responsibility as children take on
roles to support the family.
• Development of stronger emotional bonds with the
present parent.
• Enhanced empathy and understanding of diverse family
structures.

Advantages of Single Parenthood

1. No Compromises: Single parents make decisions
independently without conflicting opinions from a
partner.
2. You Have Breaks: Sharing responsibilities with external
support systems (e.g., extended family, friends) allows
for personal time.

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 3. More Bonding: Opportunities for closer, more
meaningful relationships between the parent and child.
4. Build Self-Esteem: Children and parents often grow in
confidence as they face challenges together.
5. Less Stress: Avoidance of conflicts commonly seen in
strained two-parent households.

Disadvantages of Single Parenthood

1. Financial Struggles:
o Single-income households may struggle with
expenses, leading to financial stress.
o Limited resources for extracurricular activities or
higher education can arise.
2. Emotional Problems:
o Parents may experience guilt, frustration, or
exhaustion from balancing responsibilities.
o Children may miss emotional support from the
absent parent.
3. Loneliness:
o Parents may lack social support or companionship,
contributing to feelings of isolation.
o Children may feel different from peers in traditional
family structures.
4. Healthcare Concerns:

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 o Limited access to healthcare or difficulty managing
medical needs due to financial constraints.
o Increased risk of stress-related health issues for the
parent.
5. Stress:
o Balancing work, parenting, and household
responsibilities can overwhelm single parents.
o Children may experience stress from parental
absence or family instability.

MIGRATION OF FAMILY

Definition and Meaning of Migration

Migration refers to the movement of individuals or families
from one place to another, often across regions or countries, to
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settle temporarily or permanently. This process can involve
significant changes in lifestyle, culture, and environment.
• Types of Migration:
o Internal Migration: Movement within the same
country, e.g., rural-to-urban migration for better job
opportunities.
o International Migration: Moving to a different
country, often for economic, educational, or safety
reasons.

Reasons for Migration

1. Employment Opportunities:
o Families often migrate to areas with better job
prospects or economic stability.
o Example: A parent moving from a rural village to a
city for work in manufacturing.
2. Education:
o Parents migrate to provide better education for their
children or to pursue higher studies themselves.
o Example: Students migrating to countries like the
U.S. or U.K. for university education.
3. Healthcare:
o Migration can be driven by the need for better
healthcare services unavailable in the current
location.

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 o Example: Families moving to urban areas with
advanced hospitals for treating chronic illnesses.
4. Circumstances (War, Natural Calamities, Lack of
Safety):
o Conflict, violence, natural disasters, or political
instability force people to seek refuge elsewhere.
o Example: Refugees from Syria fleeing war to
neighboring countries.
5. Lack of Safety:
o Fear of persecution, high crime rates, or unstable
political conditions push families to relocate.
o Example: Families leaving high-crime
neighborhoods for safer areas.

Barriers Faced During Migration

1. Language:
o Migrants often struggle to communicate in a new
language, creating obstacles in employment,
education, and daily life.
o Example: A family moving to France may face
challenges without knowledge of French.
2. Education:
o Migrant children may experience interruptions in
schooling, gaps in curriculum compatibility, and
difficulty adjusting to new educational systems.

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 o Example: Refugee children may have limited access
to schools in host countries.
3. Healthcare Services:
o Limited knowledge of local healthcare systems and
high costs can prevent migrants from accessing
necessary care.
o Example: Undocumented migrants in the U.S. often
face barriers to medical assistance.
4. Food:
o Cultural and dietary differences can make accessing
familiar or affordable food challenging.
o Example: Migrants may struggle to find culturally
appropriate meals in a new country.
5. Cultural Adaptation:
o Adjusting to a new culture, norms, and values can
lead to culture shock and feelings of alienation.
o Example: Migrants from conservative cultures may
find it difficult to adapt to more liberal societal
norms.
6. Discrimination:
o Migrants may face prejudice or unequal treatment
based on their ethnicity, religion, or nationality.
o Example: Xenophobia directed at migrant workers
in some host countries.
7. Upbringing Challenges:

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 o Discrimination and cultural differences can impact a
child's self-confidence and self-esteem, leading to
feelings of inferiority.
o Example: Migrant children may be bullied at
school, affecting their emotional development.

Impact on Migrant Families and Children

1. Psychological Effects:
o Migrants, especially children, often experience
stress, anxiety, and depression due to separation,
discrimination, or unfamiliar environments.
2. Economic Struggles:
o Families may struggle financially due to lower
wages, limited job opportunities, or lack of legal
work permits in host regions.
3. Social Isolation:
o Migrants often feel excluded due to language
barriers and cultural differences, making it hard to
build support networks.
4. Resilience and Adaptability:
o On the positive side, migration can foster resilience,
independence, and global awareness in children.

Examples of Migrant Experiences

• Refugee Families:

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 o Families fleeing war zones often face significant
challenges, such as living in refugee camps, lack of
access to education, and trauma.
• Economic Migrants:
o Workers from developing countries moving to urban
centers or wealthier nations may find improved
financial stability but face societal exclusion.
• Student Migrants:
o International students gain access to better
educational opportunities but may experience
loneliness and cultural dissonance.

WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES FACED BY

MIGRANT CHILDREN

Challenges Faced by Migrant Children (with Examples)

Migrant children face various challenges as they navigate
displacement, integration into a new society, and the impacts
of trauma. These difficulties can affect their social, emotional,
and mental well-being, complicating their development and
sense of security.

1. Vulnerability

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 • Example: Unaccompanied migrant children in Europe,
particularly those from conflict zones like Syria, face
heightened vulnerability to exploitation, trafficking, and
abuse. According to reports by organizations like
UNICEF, these children often lack legal protection,
which exposes them to further risks while migrating or in
refugee camps.
• Migrant children are particularly vulnerable due to their
lack of adult protection, which increases the chances of
being exploited or abused during migration.

2. Bullying and Discrimination

• Example: In the United States, migrant children,
especially those from Latin American backgrounds, often
face bullying in schools. They are targeted for their
accents, skin color, or cultural practices. Research
conducted by the Southern Poverty Law Center found
that migrant students frequently report bullying, which
negatively affects their school performance and social
integration.
• Migrant children are vulnerable to discrimination and
bullying, both in school and in society. This can lead to
feelings of inferiority and exclusion, impairing their self-
esteem and social development.

3. Unsafe Environments
• Example: Refugee children living in camps such as
those in Jordan or Greece are often exposed to unsanitary
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 conditions, lack of proper healthcare, and even violence.
In the Moria refugee camp in Greece, for example,
children faced overcrowding, inadequate sanitation, and
the constant threat of violence.
• The safety and well-being of migrant children in
temporary or refugee shelters are often compromised due
to poor infrastructure, security concerns, and a lack of
resources.

4. Aggression and Behavioral Issues

• Example: A study of refugee children from Syria and
Afghanistan in Germany revealed that many exhibited
behavioral issues, including aggression and emotional
outbursts. This was attributed to the trauma they
experienced during conflict, as well as the stress of
adapting to a new, unfamiliar environment.
• The trauma associated with migration and the stress of
adjusting to a new life can result in behavioral problems
such as aggression or withdrawal, which may require
specialized psychological support.

5. Limited Opportunities
• Example: Migrant children in the UK, especially those
from lower socio-economic backgrounds or with
undocumented status, face barriers in accessing quality
education and healthcare. Without proper documentation
or financial resources, many are denied the opportunities
to thrive academically and socially.
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 • Migrant children often encounter systemic barriers that
prevent them from accessing the same opportunities as
their local peers, such as education, extracurricular
activities, and healthcare.

6. Adapting to a New Culture

• Example: Children migrating from countries like
Somalia or Afghanistan to Western countries like the US
or Canada often struggle with cultural differences,
including language barriers and unfamiliar social
practices. A Somali migrant child, for instance, might
feel alienated in a classroom where the culture is very
different from their own.
• Migrant children must navigate the challenge of
adjusting to an entirely new culture, including learning a
new language and adapting to new social norms, which
can lead to feelings of alienation and confusion.

7. Identity Confusion
• Example: A child of Iraqi parents who fled to the United
States may experience identity confusion as they grow up
in an environment where they are encouraged to
assimilate into American culture but still feel a strong
connection to their Iraqi roots. This can create an internal
struggle about their cultural identity, making it difficult
to reconcile both backgrounds
• Migrant children often experience a clash between their
home culture and the culture of the host country, leading
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 to confusion about their identity. They may feel neither
fully connected to their native culture nor accepted by
the host culture.

8. Exclusion and Loneliness

• Example: A migrant child from a rural area of Pakistan
who moves to a bustling city in the UK may initially
struggle to form friendships due to language barriers and
unfamiliar social norms. They may feel isolated, which
can contribute to depression or anxiety
• Feeling excluded from peer groups or social activities is
a common experience for migrant children. This
exclusion can lead to loneliness, further compounding
the challenges they face in adapting to their new
environment.

9. Mental Health Issues

• Example: Many migrant children experience heightened
levels of anxiety and depression due to the trauma of
their migration journey, as well as the stress of adapting
to new conditions. In Germany, for example, a study
found that 60% of refugee children experienced
significant mental health issues such as PTSD,
depression, or anxiety
• Migrant children are at an increased risk of developing
mental health disorders due to their stressful experiences,
including trauma, displacement, and the challenges of
integrating into a new culture.
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Recommendations for Support:
To address these challenges, several strategies can be
implemented:
1. Access to Education: Governments should ensure
migrant children have access to quality education and
language support.
2. Mental Health Services: Offering counseling services,
especially trauma-informed care, can help migrant
children address emotional and psychological issues.
3. Community Integration: Encouraging cultural
exchange programs and inclusive community initiatives
can help migrant children feel accepted and build a
support network.
4. Anti-bullying Measures: Schools and communities
should implement anti-bullying campaigns to reduce
discrimination and foster a more inclusive environment
for migrant children.

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 Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

Stages jean piaget’s theory of cognitive development

Sensorimotor stage Preoperational stage

Concrete operational stage Formal operational stage
(0-2 y ) (2-7 y )
(7-11 y ) (11 y +)

Reflexive Primary circular Secondary circular Coordination of Tertiary circular Mental

stage (0- 1 reaction (1-4 m) reaction (4-8m) secondary reaction 12- representation
m) circular reaction 18m) (18m- 2y)
(8-12m)

. Schema
Schema is the lowest brick of cognitive theory. it is the basic
cognitive unit of cognitive theory. It is like a file of
information.

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. Adaptation
it is a process of adjusting to new situation or information. it’s
how we change our thinking to deal with new experiences

. Assimilation
it happens when we take in new information and it fit it into
something we already know.
ex: if you learn about a new type of dog, you add it to your
mental category of “dogs”
. Accommodation
it is when we change what we already know to make room for
new information.
Ex: if you learn about an animal that doesn’t fit into your
existing category, you may create a new category

• Acc to JP the balance between assimilation and

accommodation varies over time. when children are not
changing much the assimilate more than accommodate

. organization
Organization refers to how we structure and arrange
information in our minds, as we learn we group similar ideas
or concepts together like a mental folder .it helps us make
sense of the world

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. Equilibrium
It is a state of mental balance. it happens when what we know
(‘our existing knowledge) matches the information of
experiences we [Link] this stage everything makes
sense.

. disequilibrium
It is when we face new information or experiences that don’t
fit into what we already know, causing confusion or
imbalance this discomfort motivates us to learn adapt, either
by changing our thinking (accommodation) or fitting the new
information into what we already know (assimilation)
,which helps to restore equilibrium.

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