Intermediate Practical Manual

Botany
Authors

Dr. A. Gourinath, [Link].,Ph.D Dr. G. Venkateshwar Rao

Principal (Retd.) [Link]., Ph.D., [Link]., PGDHE
Sri Ramabhadra College Sr. Lecturer in Botany
Hyderabad Sri Gayatri Medical Academy
Madhapur, Hyderabad

Dr. V.V. Ramana Rao T. Rama Devi, [Link].,

[Link].,Ph.D, [Link]., PGDDE Jr. Lecturer in Botany
Jr. Lecturer in Botany Kasturiba Jr. College
O/o. Commissioner, Intermediate Education Hyderabad
Hyderabad

Editor
Prof. S. Seeta Rama Rao, [Link]., Ph.D.
Department of Botany
Osmania University
Hyderabad

Andhra Pradesh State Board of Intermediate Education

Intermediate Board, Tadepalli, Guntur Dist., A.P.
 Botany
Rhizopus

Division : Eumycota
Class : Zygomycetes
Order : Mucorales
Family : Mucoraceae
Genus : Rhizopus

The given specimen shows the following characters:

1. The plant body of Rhizopus is called mycelium. It commonly grows as a saprophyte.
2. The mycelium is made up of three kinds of hyphae such as stolons, rhizoids and
sporangiophores.
3. Stolons grow horizontally on the substratum.
4. Rhizoids grow into the substratum and absorb nutrients from it.
5. Hyphal wall is made up of fungal chitin.
6. Asexual reproduction in Rhizopus takes place through sporangiospores produced in
sporangia.
7. Sporangiophores are cluster of aerial, erect, unbranched reproductive hyphae and
grow from stolons opposite to rhizoids.
8. Each sporangiophore bears a single spherical sporangium at its tip.
9. Dome shaped columella is present within the sporangium.
10. Large number of spherical, non-motile, multinucleate spores are produced by each
sporangium.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identified as vegetative mycelium of
Rhizopus.

Rhizopus mycelium showing asexual stage

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Intermediate Practical Manual
Agaricus

Division : Eumycota
Class : Basidiomycetes
Order : Agaricales
Family : Agaricaceae
Genus : Agaricus

The given specimen shows the following characters:

1. Common edible mushroom is the fruiting body or basidiocarp of Agaricus.
2. The fungus is a saprophyte that grows in soil rich in humus and with thick layer of
semi decomposed organic matter.
3. The thallus consists of an underground, highly interwoven mass of thick colourless
hyphae.
4. A young fruiting body is a white, spherical, button like structure. A mature fruiting
body can be distinguished into two parts stipe and pileus.
(i) An erect stalk or stipe composed of mass of vertically arranged
hyphae.
(ii) An unbrella like pileus attached ventrally at the centre to the stalk.
At the base of the stipe is collar like ring known as annulus, which
is a remnant of the covering of young basidiocarp.
5. There are radiating plate like structures called gills on the under surface of pileus,
which radiate from the centre to the periphery. The gills bear basidia and basidiospores.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identified as basidiocarp of Agaricus.

stipe

Agaricus - Basidiocarp

6
 Botany
Nostoc

Division : Cyanophyta
Class : Cyanophyceae
Order : Nostocales
Family : Nostocaceae
Genus : Nostoc

The given specimen shows the following characters:

1. It is a blue green alga.
2. The thallus is filamentous.
3. It grows in both terrestrial and aquatic habitats.
4. It does not occurs in single filaments but grows in large colonies of closely packed
trichomes embedded in a firm matrix of gelatinous material.
5. It can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialised cells called heterocysts.
6. Flagella are absent in vegetative or reproductive phases.
7. Each cell has a definite cell wall.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identified as the vegetative fila-
ment of Nostoc.

Nostoc - vegetative filament

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Intermediate Practical Manual
Spirogyra

Division : Thallophyta
Class : Chlorophyceae
Order : Conjugales
Family : Zygnemataceae
Genus : Spirogyra

The given specimen shows the following characters:

1. The plant body is multicellular, uniseriate, unbranched green filament.
2. The cells are cylindrical and are usually longer than their diameter.
3. The cell wall is thin and has two layers in which the inner one is made up of cellulose
and outer one with pectin.
4. Cytoplasm lies peripherally around a large central vacuole and is known as “primordial
utricle”.
5. 1-16 ribbon shaped chloroplasts are arranged spirally in the cytoplasm.
6. A number of pyrenoids which store starch are arranged equidistantly along the
mid-axial line of chloroplasts.
7. The cells are uninucleate. A single nucleus lies suspended in the centre of the cell by
cytoplasmic strands.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identified as a vegetative filament of
Spirogyara.

Spirogyra - vegetative filament

8
 Botany
Marchantia

Division : Bryophyta
Class : Hepaticopsida
Order : Marchantiales
Family : Marchantiaceae
Genus : Marchantia

The given specimen shows the following characters:

1. Marchantia thallus is dorsiventrally flat, thalloid structure that grows flat on the surface
of the soil substratum.
2. Thallus is dichotomously lobed, with an apical notch in each lobe.
3. There is a dark median furrow called mid-rib on the dorsal side that extends into each
lobe.
4. Small cup-like structures called gemma cups are borne on the dorsal surface of the
thallus. They contain the vegetative propagules called gemmae.
5. Ventral side of the thallus bears colourless, unicellular rhizoids which are of two types
(a) smooth walled and (b) tuberculate rhizoids. The rhizoids help in anchorage and
absorption of water through their capillary action.
6. Reproductive organs are borne on antheridiophores and archegoniophores that arise
from the apical notches of male and female thalli respectively.
7. The antheridiophore has a flattened, more or less convex head or receptacle which bears
antheridia.
8. The archegoniophores are umbrella shaped structures, with outwardly projected ribs.
Between the ribs, the archegonia are present.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identified as the Thallus of Marchantia.

Antheridial
cluster

Antheridio
phore

Thallus

Marchantia (Male) Thallus

9
Intermediate Practical Manual

Funaria

Division : Bryophyta
Class : Bryopsida
Order : Funariales
Family : Funariaceae
Genus : Funaria

The given specimen shows the following characters:

1. Funaria plants shows both gametophytic and sporophytic stages.
2. Gametophyte (gametophore) consists of stem, leaves and rhizoids.
3. Stem is slender, upright, green and branched; lateral branches arise from below the
leaf (extra axillary).
4. Leaves are small, ovate, sessile and green with acute tip, entire margin and single
midrib, phyllotaxy is spiral.
5. Rhizoids are branched, multicellular with oblique septa.
6. Sporophyte has three parts 1) Foot 2) Seta 3) Capsule.
7. Foot is a dagger shaped conical structure embedded in the female branch.
8. Seta is along, stalk like, hygroscopic structure and it helps in dispersal of spores by
undergoing twists and curls.
9. The capsule is pear shaped and covered by calyptra at the tip.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identified as a Funaria plant with
sporophyte.

Calyptra
Capsule
Seta

Female branch

Male branch
Stem
Rhizoids

Funaria plant with sporophyte

10
 Botany

Selaginella

Division : Pteridophyta
Class : Lycopsida
Order : Selaginellales
Family : Selaginellaceae
Genus : Selaginella

The given specimen shows the following characters:

1. The plant is a sporophyte.

2. The stem is herbaceous, branched and generally prostrate.
3. The leaves are microphyllous. They are of two kinds i.e., smaller and larger. Each leaf is
traversed by a single unbranched midrib.
4. The leaf on its upper surface near its base bears a small membranous structure called
ligule.
5. The leaves are arranged in four longitudinal rows. The smaller leaves are arranged in
two rows along the dorsal side of the stem. The larger leaves are arranged in two rows
on the ventralside of the stem.
6. The colourless, leafless structures called rhizophores arise from the forking of the stem.
They grow downwards and produce adventitious roots.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identified as Selaginella plant.

leaves

stem
rhizophore

roots

Selaginella - plant

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Intermediate Practical Manual
Pteris

Division : Pteridophyta
Class : Filicopsida
Order : Filicales
Family : Polypodiaceae
Genus : Pteris

The given specimen shows the following characters:

1. Pteris is a fern (Pteridophyte) with obliquely growing, subterranean rhizome.

2. Rhizome is short, thick and is covered with scale leaves, remmants of leaf bases and
cluster of adventitious roots.
3. The aerial shoot consist of several large compound leaves called fronds.
4. Each compound leaf arises from a bud. The young leaf has circinate vernation. The leaf
is rolled from apex to downwards like a watch spring and petiole has dense covering of
brown hair like structures called ramenta.
5. Leaves are long, compound with leaflets arranged on either side of mid-rib called
rachis. Rachis is the extended part of the petiole.
6. Petiole is long, cylindrical and covered with hairs when young.
7. Leaflets of pinnules have wavy margin and are sub-sessile.
8. large number of greenish (when young) or black (when mature) sac like structures are
borne on the ventral side of the pinnule. These are called sori (single: sorus).
9. Each sorus contains a cluster of sporangia bearing spores.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identified as Pteris plant.

sori under
leaf

compound
leaf, frond

coiled
young leaf

rhizome
roots
Pteris - plant

12
 Botany

Cycas

Division : Spermatophyta
Class : Cycadopsida
Order : Cycadales
Family : Cycadaceae
Genus : Cycas

Cycas - Microsporophyll
The given specimen shows the following characters: Apophysis

1. It is a flattened structure and is triangular in shape.

2. The basal part is narrow and sterile. Micro
3. The upper part gradually becomes narrow and pointed and sporangia
is called apophysis.
4. Fertile part lies in between the basal part and the Sori
apophysis.
5. Microsporangia are formed in definite sori on the ventral
surface of the microsporophyll.
6. Each sorus contains 2-6 microsporangia.
7. Inducial hairs occur intermixed with the sporangia.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identified
as Cycas microsporophyll. Cycas - microsporophyll

Cycas - Megasporophyll
The given specimen shows the following character:

1. It is a flat and dorsiventral structure.

2. It has lower 1) stalk like portion 2) middle fertile portion
bearing ovules and 3) upper sterile pinna like structure.
3. Brownish hairs (ramenta) are present all over the
megasporophyll.
4. 1-6 pairs of ovules are borne laterally in notches on the
middle portion of the megasporophyll.
5. The ovules are naked and orthotropous.
6. The ovules are largest in the plant kingdom.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identified
as Cycas - megasporophyll.
Cycas -
megasporophyll

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Intermediate Practical Manual

Pisum sativum (PEA)

Division : Spermatophyta
Class : Dicotyledonae
Order : Rosales
Family : Fabaceae
Genus : Pisum

The given specimen shows the following characters:

1. Plant body is differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
2. Taproot system is present.
3. Leaves are compound with reticulate venation. Terminal leaflets are modified into
tendrils.
4. Flowers are pentamerous, with papilionaceous corolla.
5. Reproductive organs are stamens and carpels. Within the carpels ovules are present.
6. Fruit is legume and seeds have two cotyledons.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identified as Pisum sativum (Pea).

leaf tendrils

Leaflets

Foliaceous stipule

Pisum (Pea) plant

14
 Botany

Zea mays (CORN)

Division : Spermatophyta
Class : Monocotyledonae
Family : Poaceae
Genus : Zea

The given specimen shows the following characters:

1. Plant body is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves.
2. Fibrous root system.
3. Leaves are simple, broad with parallel venation.
4. Flowers are small trimerous with reduced perianth lobes.
5. Silky styles are present.
6. Ovules are situated inside the carpels.
7. Seed has one cotyledon. Fruit is cob with seeds arranged in rows.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identified as Zea mays (corn) plant.

Inflorescence with
male flowers

Leaf

Stem

Cob with
silky styles

Zea (Corn) plant

15
Intermediate Practical Manual

Root Modifications
Storage Roots - eg : Carrot (Daucus carota)
The given specimen shows the following characters:
1. The specimen is non-green in colour.
2. It is a tuberous structure formed due to the accumulation of food materials.
3. Nodes and internodes are absent.
4. The tuberous root is conical in shape.
By the above characteristic features it is identified as a storage root (carrot)

Storage root -
Daucus carota

Epiphytic roots eg : Vanda

The given specimen shows the following features:
1. The plant bears two kinds of roots called clinging roots and
velamen roots.
2. Clinging roots are short and fix the epiphyte to the branch of
a tree.
3. The stout, hanging roots possessing spongy tissue (velamen
tissue) are called velamen roots.
4. Velamen tissue is a special, dead, hygroscopic epidermal
Clinging root tissue.
5. Velamen roots absorb the moisture from the surrounding
Velamen root atmosphere through velamen tissue.
By the above features the given specimen is identified as an
Epiphytic roots - Vanda epiphytic plant with velamen roots (epiphytic roots).

16
 Botany

Nodular roots - e.g., Groundnut

(Arachis hypogaea)
The following are the features seen in the given specimen:
1. There is tap root system consisting of tap root, lateral
roots, root hairs etc.
nodules
2. Small nodules are found on these roots.
3. Nodules contain bacteria called Rhizobium.
4. Bacteria fix up the atmospheric nitrogen.
5. Pink pigment called leghaemoglobin is present in
the nodules.
By the above features it is identified as Nodular
roots (Arachis).

Nodular roots - Groundnut

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Intermediate Practical Manual

Stem Modifications

Rhizome e.g., Ginger (Zinziber officinalis)

The given specimen shows the following features:
1. The stem is horizontal, dorsiventral,
Scale leaf brown and branched.
Internode Axillary bud
2. It is non-green, thick and fleshy due to
the storage of the food materials.
3. Distinct nodes and internodes are
present.
4. Brown scale leaves are present at
Node every node.
5. Both axillary buds and terminal buds
Adventitious root
are present.
Rhizome - Ginger 6. Adventitious roots develop from the
ventral side.
By the above features the given specimen is identified as rhizome of Ginger which
is an underground modification of the stem.

Corm e.g., colocasia (Colocasia antiquorum)

The given specimen shows the following features:
1. It is underground structure elongated anterio-posterior
(vertical) direction. It grows vertically in the soil.
2. It is non-green, thick and solid due to the accumulation of
Scale food materials.
leaves 3. Nodes and internodes are prominent in the form of circular
ridges.
4. Brown membranous scale leaves are present at every node.
5. Both terminal bud and axillary buds are present.
6. Axillary buds grow into daughter corms.
7. Adventitious roots are present at the base.
The above features indicate that the given specimen is a corm ( of
Daughter
corm Colocasia) which is an underground modified stem.

Corm - Colocasia

18
 Botany

Stem tuber e.g., Potato (Solanum tuberosum)

The given specimen shows the following features:
1. Absence of roots. Axillary
2. The specimen is swollen and fleshy due to accumulation bud
of the food material. It is the swollen apex of an under-
ground branch.
3. Tuber is covered with a brown corky layer.
4. Nodes and internodes are present.
5. The nodes are represented by eyes on the surface of the
tuber.
6. Each eye shows a semi-lunar leaf scar and an axillary bud Eye
in its axil.
By the above character, the specimen is identified as Stem tuber - Potato
stem tuber of potato which is an underground modified
stem.

Bulb e.g., Onion (Allium cepa)

The given specimen shows the
following features:
1. Stem is in the form of a reduced
disc like structure.
2. Adventitious roots are formed on
the lower side of the disc.
3. Number of thick fleshy leaf bases
are present on the upper surface of
Terminal
the disc. bud
4. Fleshy leaf bases are concentrically
arranged on the disc.
5. Leaf bases are fleshy and hence
storage in function.
6. Outer leaf bases are scaly, dry and Bulb - Onion
membranous.
7. Dry scales give protection.
8. Both terminal and axillary buds are
present.
By the above characters the given specimen is identified as bulb (of onion) which is an
underground modification of the stem.

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Intermediate Practical Manual

Offsets e.g., Pistia

The given specimen shows the following features:
1. The plant shows a rosette of leaves on the upper surface and a tuft of adventitious roots
(balancing roots) on the lower surface.
2. From the axil of leaves, lateral branches develop. These branches are weak, elongated
horizontal to the surface of water and contain one internode each only.
3. At the tip of the branches are produced a cluster of leaves above and a tuft of roots
below.
By the above characters, the given specimenis identified as an offset of a free-floating
hydrophyte (Pistia). Offset is a sub-aerial modification of the stem.

Leaves

Balancing Roots
Offset

Offsets - Pistia

20
 Botany

Stem Tendril: e.g., Passiflora

The given specimen shows the following features:
1. Thin, wiry, leafless and spirally coiled structure called
tendril arises from axil of leaf.
2. The tendril is a modified axillary bud.
3. The tendrils help in climbing.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identified as
an aerial stem modification (stem tendril). Tendril
Stem tendril - Passiflora

Thorns: e.g., Bougainvillea

The given specimen shows the following features:
1. The special structure is a hard, woody and
pointed one called thorn.
2. Throns are present in the axils of leaves. So they
are the modified axillary buds. Thorn
3. The thorns help in climbing.
By the above characters, the given specimenis
identified as an aerial stem modification
Thorns - Bougainvillea
(Thorns).

Phylloclade: e.g., Opuntia

The given specimen shows the following features:
1. The stem is aerial, green, flattened thick and
fleshy. It is called phylloclade. It performs pho-
tosynthesis.
2. Nodes and internodes are present.
3. At every node, there is a group of spines.
4. Spines are the modified leaves. Some spines are
small and appear as hairs. All the leaves of axil-
lary bud are modified into group of spines they
are called barbs. A group of barbs and spines
present at every node is known as an aerole.
By the above characters, it is identified as the
phylloclade which is a kind of modified aerial Phylloclade - Opuntia
stem. Presence of phylloclades is a character of
xerophytes.

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Intermediate Practical Manual

Leaf Modifications

Phyllode : e.g., Acacia melanoxylon

The given specimen shows the following characters:
1. Leaves are bipinnately compound.
Leaflets 2. Petiole is modified into green, flattened
wing like structure to perform photosynthe
sis. It is called phyllode.
3. Presence of phyllode is the characteristic
Phyllode
(petiole) feature of xerophytes.
By the above features it is identified as a
kind of modified leaf (Phyllode)
Stem

Phyllode - Acacia melanoxylon

Reproductive leaves : e.g., Bryophyllum

The given specimen shows the following features:
1. The plant shows thick fleshy leaves which is a
character of succulent xerophytes.
2. Leaves produce buds called epiphyllous buds.
These buds lie in the notches present on the ways
margins of the leaf and each bud develops into a
plant.
Adventitious 3. Leaves help in vegetative propagation.
LEAF BUDS
(epiphyllous buds)
By the above featurres the given specimen is
Bryophyllum - Reproductive leaves identified as one with reproductive leaves which
are the modification of the normal leaves.

22
 Botany

Trap leaves. e.g., Nepenthes

The given specimen shows the following features: Lid

1. The lower part, of the petiole (or leaf base) is modified

into a wing like structure and the upper part of the petiole
is modified into a tendril. The lamina of the leaf is modi-
fied into a pitcher. The lid of the pitcher is the modified Wing
leaf tip.
2. It is an insectivorous plant.
3. They grow in nitrogen deficient soils and so they depend Tendril
on organisms like insects for their nitrogen requirements.
In order to attract the insects and digest the insect
proteins, the leaves of this plant modify into trap leaves. Pitcher
Trap leaves are modification of the normal leaves.
By the above features, the given specimen is identified
Nepenthes - Trap leaves
as a plant having trap leaves.

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Intermediate Practical Manual

Inflorescences

Simple umbel: e.g., Onion (Allium cepa)

The given specimen shows the following characters:
1. There is a cluster of bracteate and pedicellate
flowers at the apex of an unbranched peduncle.
2. Bracts of all the flowers are arranged in a whorl at
the base of the inflorescence forming membranous
structure called involucre.
3. Flowers are centripetally arranged.
By the above characters the given specimen is
identified as a simple umbel type of racemose
Invulucre of inflorescence.
bracts

Onion - Simple Umbel

Simple spadix: e.g., Colocasia

The given specimen shows the following features:

1. The peduncle is fleshy and unbranched.

2. Three types of flowers such as male, neuter and female
flowers are present on the peduncle. They are
arranged in acropetal manner.
3. Male flowers are placed at the top of the peduncle.
4. Female flowers are present at the bottom of the
peduncle.
5. Neutral flowers are present in between male and
female flowers.
6. Entire inflorescence is covered by a leathery bract
called spathe.
7. The terminal part of the peduncle is flowerless and it is
called appendix.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identi
fied as simple spadix type of recemose inflorescence.

Simple spadix - Colocasia

24
 Botany

Verticillaster: e.g., Leucas

The given specimen shows the following characters:
1. The inflorescence appears as a false whorl around the
node.
2. It originates in the axils of two opposite leaves.
3. The flowers are arranged in a dichasial cyme in the Bracts
beginning and later as a monochasial scorpiod cyme.
4. The flowers open in centrifugal manner.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identi-
fied as verticillaster which is a special of inflores-
Verticillaster - Leucas
cence.

Cyathium: e.g., Euphorbia

The given specimen shows the following features:
1. It is an inflorescence looking like a single flower.
2. Involucre of bracts form a cup like structure.
3. Nectar glands are present on the outerside of the cup.
4. A long stalked female flower is present at the centre
of the cup.
5. Female flower has tricarpellary, syncarpous trilocular
ovary.
6. Each male flower is represented by a stamen.
7. A number of male flowers are arranged in a scorpioid
manner around the female flower. Cyathium - Euphorbia
8. Both male and female flowers are achlamydeous.
By the above features the given specimen is identified
as a Cyathium which is a special type of inflores-
cence.

Hypantodium: e.g., Ficus

The given specimen shows the following characters:
1. It is a fruit like inflorescence.
2. There is a cup shaped structure formed by pe-
duncle.
3, There is a hollow cavity inside the cup with an
apical opening.
4. Flowers are borne on the inner wall of the cavity.
5. There are three types of flowers such as male,
Female Gall Male
female and sterile female (called gall) flowers. flower flower flower
6. The male flowers are present near the opening Hypanthodium - Ficus
and female flowers at the base. In between male
and female flowers, the sterile female flowers are
present called gall flowers.
7. Opening of the flowers is irregular.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identified as hypanthodium
which is a special type of inflorescence.

25
 Botany

Fruits
Berry : e.g., Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)
The given specimen shows the following characters: Epicarp
1. The pericarp is differentiated into outer epicarp,
middle mesocarp and inner endocarp. Meso and
2. Endocarp is not distinct but fused with the meso Endocarps
carp to form a major fleshy part of the fruit.
3. Seeds are the only hard portions in the fruit. These
Seeds
are scattered in the fleshy part of the fruit.
4. The fruit develops from a bicarpellary superior
ovary.
From the above characters, the given specimen is Berry - Tomato
identified as a Berry which is a type of simple
fleshy fruit.
Hesperidium: e.g., Citrus
The given specimen shows the following characters:
1. The fruit develops from multicarpellary, syncarpous
and
Juicy Endocarp
multilocular ovary. Epi and
2. The pericarp is differentiated into three parts namely hairs Mesocarps
outer epicarp, middle mesocarp and inner endocarp.
3. Epicarp is thick, leathery with glands of volatile oils.
4. Mesocarp is thin, white and papery. It is fused with
epicarp.
5. Endocarp is membranous and has many chambers
filled with juicy edible hairs.
6. Seeds in each chamber are attached to the central
axile placenta Hesperidium - Citrus
By the above characters the specimen is identified
as a Hesperidium which is a type of simple fleshy
fruit.
Pepo: e.g., Cucumis
The given specimen shows the following features:
1. The fruit develops from tricarpellary and syncarpous
ovary.
2. The pericarp is differentiated into outer epicarp,
middle mesocarp and inner endocarp.
3. The epicarp is fused with hard sheath like thalamus
to form a rind around the fruit.
4. There is a fleshy mesocarp and a smooth endocarp.
5. Seeds are many and are developed from the inner
walls of the fruit.
By the above characters the specimen is identified Pepo - Cucumis
as pepo which is a type of simple fleshy fruit.

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Intermediate Practical Manual

Pome: e.g., Apple (Pyrus malus)

The given specimen shows the following characters:
1. The fruit develops from multicarpellary, syncar
Fleshy
thalamus pous ovary and is surrounded by fleshy thala
mus (false fruit).
2. The pericarp is distinct, hard and encloses
seeds.
By the above characters, the specimen is identi
fied as a pome, which is a type of simple
fleshy true fruit.
True
fruit

Pome - apple

Drupe: e.g., Coconut (Cocos nucifera)

The given specimen shows the following characters:
1. The fruit develops from monocarpellary and
unilocular ovary.
2. The pericarp is differentiated into outer epicarp,
Epicarp middle mesocarp and inner endocarp.
3. Epicarp is hard and green in colour.
Mesocarp
4. Mesocarp is fibrous.
5. Endocarp is stony enclosing a single seed.
6. Water present is the liquid endosperm.
7. Endosperm is white and is the edible portion.
By the above characters, the given specimen is identi
Endocarp fied as a drupe which is a type of simple fleshy fruit.

Pome - apple

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Intermediate Practical Manual

Fabaceae
eg. Tephrosia purpurea

Class : Dicotyledonae
Sub-class : Polypetalae
Series : Calyciflorae
Order : Rosales
Family : Fabaceae
Genus : Tephrosia
Species : Purpurea

Vegetative characters
Habitat : Mesophyte
Habit : Annual herb
Root : Tap root system, Nodular roots are present
Stem : Aerial, erect, cylindrical, glabrous, herbaceous, branched.
Leaf : Cauline and ramal, leafbase is pulvinus, stipulate, unipinnately
compound leaf, imparipinnate, alternate, petiolate, leaflet obovate,
entire, reticulate venation, Apex is mucronate.

Floral characters
Inflorescence : Simple raceme
Flower in General : Bracteate, Bracteolate, Pedicellate, Complete, Bisexual, Zygomor
phic, Perigynous, Pentamerous, Dichlamydeous, Heterochlamydeous,
Cyclic.
Calyx : Sepals 5, gamesepalous, slightly fused at the base, valvate, odd
sepal is anterior.
Corolla : Petals 5, Polypetalous, papilionaceous, aestivation descendingly
imbricate, odd petal is posterior.
Androecium : Stamens 10, diadelphous (9+1), anthers introrse, dithecous, basifixed,
longitudinal dehiscence.
Gynoecium : Monocarpellary ovary, unilocular, half inferior ovary with
ovules on marginal placentation, style long and bent at its base, stigma
simple and hairy.
Fruit : Legume.
Seed : Dicotyledonous, Non-endospermic.


Floral formula : Br, Brl, %, , K(5), C1+2+(2)A(9)+1G1

+

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 Botany

L.S. of flower
Twing with inflorescence

Ovule

Locule

T.S. of ovary

Floral diagram

Fabaceae : Tephrosia purpurea

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Intermediate Practical Manual

Identification characters
1) Compound leaves
2) Pulvinus leafbase
3) Papilionaceous corolla
4) Zygomorphic flower
5) Odd sepal anterior
6) Descendingly imbricate aestivation of corolla
7) Diadelphous stamens
8) Monocarpellary gynoecium, unilocular ovary
9) Marginal placentation
10) Fruit legume
By the above characters, the given plant has been assigned to family Fabaceae.

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 Botany

Solanaceae
eg. Datura metal
Class : Dicotyledonae
Sub-class : Gamopetalae
Series : Bicarpellatae
Order : Polemoniales
Family : Solanaceae
Genus : Datura
Species : metel

Vegetative characters
Habitat : Mesophyte, wild
Habit : Annual herb or a small shrub
Root : Tap root system
Stem : Aerial, erect, cylindrical, green, herbaceous, branched.
Leaf : Cauline and ramal, simple, alternate in the vegetative region but
opposite in the flowering region, exstipulate, petiolate, ovate, acute,
dentate, reticulate venation, glabrous, adnation of the petiole with
the stem.

Floral characters
Inflorescence : Cymose, solitary terminal cyme
Flower in General : Ebracteate, Ebracteolate, Pedicellate, Bisexual, Complete, Actino
morphic, Dichlamydeous, Heterochlamydeous, Hypogynous,
Pentamerous, Cyclic.
Calyx : Sepals 5, gamesepalous, aestivation valvate, persistent.
Corolla : Petals 5, white in colour, gamopetalous, infundibuliform
(funnel shape), twisted aestivation.
Androecium : Stamens 5, epipetalous, anthers dithecous, introrse, basifixed,
dehiscence longitudinal.
Gynoecium : Bicarpellary, syncarpous ovary, bilocular ovary when young but
tetralocular in older flowers due to the formation of false septum,
ovary superior, swollen placenta, axile placentation, ovary is oblique
in position due to the tilting of posterior carpel to the right and
anterior carpel to the left at an angle of 45o, style terminal and stigma
capitate.
Fruit : Septifragal capsule

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Stigma

Stamen

Solanaceae : Datura metel

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 Botany

Seed : Dicotyledonous, Endospermic

: Ebr, Ebrl, + ,


Floral formula , K(5), C(5) A5, G(2)
+

Identification Characters
1) Simple, exstipulate leaves
2) Solitary cymose inflorescence
3) Actinomorphic and hypogynous flower
4) Gamopetalous corolla
5) Epipetalous stamens
6) Bicarpellary syncarpous gynoecium
7) Tilting of carpels
8) Swollen placenta
9) Axile placentation
By the above characters, the given plant has been assigned to family Solanaceae.

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Intermediate Practical Manual

Liliaceae
eg. Allium cepa

Class : Monocotyledonae
Series : Coronariae
Family : Liliaceae
Genus : Allium
Species : cepa

Vegetative characters
Habitat : Mesophyte, cultivable variety.
Habit : Perennial herb.
Stem : Stem is underground and perennial. It is a bulb (underground stem
modification).
Leaf : The leaves are radical, alternate, sessile, simple cylindrical, hollow
green, parallel veined foliage leaves with fleshy sheathing base
arising from the underground stem.

Floral characters
Inflorescence : The terminal inflorescence develops from the ring-like apical
meristem. Scapes, one to several, generally elongate well above the
leaves. A spherical simple umbel is borne on each scape.
Flower in General : The flowers are bracteate, ebracteolate, pedicellate, actinomorphic,
complete, bisexual, homochlamydeous, trimerous and hypogynous.
Perianth : It consists of six tepals arranged in two alternate whorls of three each.
they are polyphyllous but tepals fused at the base and are petaloid.
The aestivation is valvate.
Androecium : Stamens are six, arranged in two whorls of three each, they are
epiphyllous, anthers are dithecous, basifixed, introrse and dehiscence
is longitudinal.
Gynoecium : Tricarpellary, syncarpous. The ovary is superior and trilocular
with several ovules on axile placentation. The style is terminal and
stigma is trifid and capitate. The ovary has septal nectaries, one on
each septum.
Fruit : It is a capsule.
Seed : It is monocotyledonous, endosperimic with polyembryony.

Floral Formula : Br, Ebrl, + , , P3+3, A3+3 , G(3)



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 Botany

(B)

Stigma

(A)

Reduced stem
(C)

(D) (E)

Liliaceae : Allium cepa

(A) Plant, (B) Inflorescence (c) L.S of Flower (D) T.S. of Ovary, (E) Floral diagram

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Intermediate Practical Manual

Identification characters
1) Simple, radical leaves
2) Underground stem-Bulb
3) Simple umbel Inflorescence
4) Actinomorphic, trimerous flower
5) Petaloid perianath
6) Epiphyllous stamens
7) Tricarpellary, syncarpous gynoecium
8) Axile placentation
9) Septal nectaries
By the above characters, the given plant has been assigned to family Liliaceae.

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Pit or Medulla

A) Ground plan

B) Sector enlarged

Internal Structure of Dicot Root

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 Botany

Identification
The material is identified as a root because of the -
i) Presence of unicellular root haris.
ii) Absence of chlorenchyma in the cortex.
iii) Presence of clear endodermal layer with casparian strips.
iv) Radial vascular bundles with alternating xylem and phloem bundles.
v) Exarch nature of xylem.
The given root is inferred to belong to dicots because of -
i) Tetrarch condition, that is four xylem bundles.
ii) Small pith area.
Based on the above anatomical features, the material is identified as a dicot root.

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Epidermis

Cortex

Stele

A) Ground plan

Root hair

Epidermis

Cortex

Endodermis

Pericycle

Conjunctive tissue
Metaxylem
Phloem

Protoxylem

B) Sector enlarged
Internal Structure of Monocot Root

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Intermediate Practical Manual

Identification
The material is identified as a root because of the -
i) Presence of unicellular root haris.
ii) Absence of chlorenchyma in the cortex.
iii) Presence of clear endodermal layer with casparian strips.
iv) Presence of pericycle below the endodermis.
v) Radial vascular bundles with alternating xylem and phloem bundles.
vi) Exarch nature of xylem.

The given root is inferred to belong to monocots because of -

i) Polyarch condition, that is presence of several xylem bundles.
ii) Large pith area.
Based on the above anatomical features, the given material is identified as a
monocot root.

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Intermediate Practical Manual

A) Ground plan

Trichome

Hypodermis

Simple cortex

Pericycle

Xylem

Medullary rays

B) Sector enlarged
Internal Structure of Primary Dicot Stem

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Intermediate Practical Manual

A) Sactor enlarged

B) Vascular bundle
Internal Structure of Monocot Stem

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 Botany

Experiments
(To be performed by Students)

Study of Osmosis by Potato Osmoscope

Aim
To demonstrate the phenomenon of Osmosis through potato osmoscope.

Principle
Plant cells absorb water through the process of Osmosis which is the movement of solvent
molecules across a selectively permeable membrance. The movement of water molecules from
outside into the cells is known as endosmosis while movement of water molecules from the cells to
outside is called Plasmolysis.

Requirements
i) Fresh potato tuber.
ii) Blade, Transparent plastic Petri dish, Spatula, 10ml Plastic beaker, 2ml Pipette.
iii) Table salt, water.

Procedure
i) Take 5ml of water in the beaker. Add small quantities of table salt using the spatula and stir
intermittently to prepare a near - saturated solution of table salt.
ii) Take a fresh potato tuber. Cut it into cubes of approximately 2cm3. Trim it on all sides to
remove the outer brown skin and the top few suberized cell layers.
iii) Make a square cut at the centre on one side and slowly remove the material from this cut area
such that a trough of approximately 1.5 cm3 (1.5cm length, 1.5cm width and 1.5cm depth) is
formed.
iv) Keep the potato cube in the petri dish. Pour distilled water in the petri dish such that half of
the cube becomes immersed in the water and the remaining stands in the air.
v) Now fill the central trough of the potato cube to half of its volume with the salt solution using
the pipette.
vi) Leave the entire set-up undisturbed for about 1-11/2 hours.

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Observation
After the required period, it could be observed that the trough in the potato cube becomes
completely filled.

Inference
The solvent molecules from the external distilled water enter into the cells due to
endosmosis. Thus, a continuous osmotic gradient will be created from the external distilled water
to the cell sap in several cell layers and from there into the salt solution in the trough. In this
pathway, the cell membranes act as the selectively permeable membranes.

Precaution
A few cell layers must be kept intact on the sides as well as at the bottom of the trough.

*****

Suggestions to the Teachers

1. Care should be taken not to spill distilled water into the trough.
2. A 1 ml plastic (or disposable) injection syringe or an ink-filler can be used instead of the
pipette.
3. Sugar solution can also be used in place of salt solution.

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(To be performed by Students)

Plasmolysis in Epidermal Peel of leaf

Aim
To study plasmolysis in epidermal peel of leaf.

Principle
Living cells are generally turgid due to the presence of water. When cells are immersed in
hypertonic solution, shrinkage of protoplasm takes place with visible separation of plasma
membrane from the cell walls. This is called plasmolysis and occurs due to exosmosis, a
phenomenon in which water from the cells moves into the surrounding medium which is hyper-
tonic that is more concentrated than the cell sap.

Requirements
Leaves of Rhoeo/Tradescantia, 20% Sucrose solution or Sodium chloride (common salt) solu-
tion, slide, cover slip, needle, brush, 2 sets of petri dishes/ watch glasses, compound microscope,
beaker with water.

Procedure
(i) Take a teaspoonful of common salt (NaCl) and dissolve it in a glass of water (or) 20%
sucrose solution (20 gms sucrose in 100 ml distilled water).
(ii) If the solution is dirty, filter it to make it clear.
(iii) Take two watch glasses. In one of them, pour 10-20 drops of the plain water (A).
(iv) In the other watch glass, pour about same amount (10-20 drops) of clean salt sucrose solu-
tion
(B).
(v) Leave the watch glasses on your table marked A and B.
(vi) Hold a single leaf of Rhoeo or Tradescantia in your left hand keeping its lower side up-
wards.
Break the side edge of the leaf with your right hand and tear off the epidermis of the leaf.
(vii) You will remove a thin transparent pink coloured peel. Cut the peel into two small pieces
(about 2 or 3 mm2)
(viii) Place one of the pieces in the watch glass containing plain water (A) and one piece in watch
glass containing common salt/sucrose solution (B).
(ix) Cover each watch glass with another empty watch glass.
(x) Leave them for 5-6 minutes.
(xi) Remove the peel from the water (watch glass A) with the help of a brush and mount it in
water, on a glass slide. Cover it with cover slip.
(xii) Observe the peel under the low power magnification and draw a few cells of the peel.
(xiii) Now take the other peel (from watch glass B) and mount it on a slide in a drop of the same
(salt sucrose) solution. Cover it with a cover slip.
(xiv) Observe the peel, under the low power magnification and draw a few cells of the peel.
(xv) Compare the diagrams of cells of A and B.

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Observation
Compare the diagrams of cells drawn from peels A and B and see the difference.

Result
Cells in the peel B exhibit plasmolysis due to loss of water.

Precautions
(i) The peel should not have any green pigment.
(ii) Do not expose the peel to air to avoid drying.
(iii) There should be enough solution while mounting it under cover glass.

*****

Suggestion to the Teachers

Both Rhoeo and Tradescantia are small, herbaceous, monocot plants. Leaves of Rhoeo are
pink coloured on the lower surface and green on the upper surface, whereas, those of Tradescantia
are pink coloured on both the surfaces.

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 Botany

(To be performed by Students)

Comparative study of the rates of transpiration in the upper and

lower surfaces of leaves (by CoCl2 method)

Aim
To demonstrate the phenomenon of stomatal transpiration from leaves by Cobalt Chloride pa-
per method.

Principle
Plants loose water in the form of vapour and this phenomenon is called transpiration. A major
proportion of this water loss is through the minute openings called stomata present on the leaf
surface. The amount of water given out depends on the number of stomata present.

Requirements
i) Plant with thin and medium sized leaves.
ii) Cobalt Chloride 1 gm, Blotting paper, 50 ml Plastic beaker, Glass rod, Forceps, Scissors, 4
Gem clips, Distilled water, Tissue paper or soft cotton cloth, Dessicator, Balance to weight
milligram quantities.

Procedure
A)Preparations to be made one day before the commencement of the experiment:
i) Water the selected plant.
ii) Weight 1 mg of Cobalt Chloride and dissolve in 20 ml of distilled water to prepare
a 5% solution.
iii) Cut the blotting paper into pieces of about 3cm2.
iv) Soak well (about 10 minutes) the blotting papers in the 5% solution of Cobalt chlo
ride. Dry them in air and keep the dried pieces in a dessicator. The dried papers
show light blue colour.
B) Performing the actual experiment:
v) Select a good leaf without any cuts. Wipe its surfaces with tissue paper to remove
dust and moisture.
vi) Take two pieces of dry Cobalt chloride paper and glass slides fix them one on either
side of the leaf surface using the gem clips.
vii) Leave the set up undisturbed for about 30 minutes. Note the time.
viii) Periodically observe the Cobalt chloride papers for any colour change.

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Observation
At the end of the required period, it could be observed that the colour of the Cobalt chloride
paper light blue changes to light pink. This change in colour first appears as small dots here and
there and gradually, as time passes, becomes larger and more conspicuous regions.

Inference
The original colour of the dry (dehydrated) Cobalt chloride paper is light blue in colour.
When the water vapour coming out through the stomata touches the paper, it a absorbs the water
molecules and the hydrated (wet) region turns light pinkish in colour. As more and more water is
given out, the pink areas become gradually larger. The specific piece of the paper which shows
larger pink areas suggests that the particular side of the leaf surface on which the paper is kept has
more number of stomata per unit area and hence the rate of transpiration from that side is more.

Leaf with Cobalt Chloride paper

Precautions
i) The Cobalt Chloride paper pieces must be well dried before usage.
ii) The leaf surfaces must be wiped to dryness before fixing the Cobalt Chloride paper pieces.
iii) Handle the Cobalt Chloride paper pieces with forceps as far as possible to avoid contact
with perspiration from the skin.
iv) Hands should by dry.

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 Botany

Suggestions to the Teachers

1. It is preferable to select a plant exposed to sun. If using a potted plant, keep it either in
sun or expose it to a gentle current of air from a fan (do not keep it close to the fan and do
not run the fan at high speed) for quicker result.
2. Even wetness of hand due to perspiration can initiate colour change; hence hands should
be dry while handling the Cobalt Chloride paper.
3. Plants with moderate sized leaves should be selected. The leaves should be thin but
strong enough to bear the weight of the clips.
4. Do not select plants whose leaves show hairs or other similar outgrowths or those with
waxy coating.

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Intermediate Practical Manual

(To be performed by Students)

Separation of plant pigments through

paper chromatography

Aim
To separate plant pigments (chloroplast pigments) by Paper Chromatography.

Principle
Chromatography is a technique by which the individual components in a mixture can be
physically separated. The technique depends upon the differential movement of each component
through a stationary medium under the influence of a moving liquid. In paper chromatography
absorbent paper is the stationary phase and solvent mixture is the mobile phase. The solvent flows
through the paper carrying the components (pigment molecules) with it. Movement of the pigments
depends on their molecular weights, adsorption and capillary action. Pigments with lighter
components move faster than the heavier components.

Requirements
Mortar and pestle, Beaker, Funnel, Measuring cylinder with a spilt cork, Capillary tube, Muslin
cloth, Scale, Scissors, Pencil, Blotting paper, Whatman No. 1 chromatography paper.

Chemicals
Acetone or Ethyl alcohol, Petroleum ether, Caco3, Sand or glass powder, Distilled water.

Plant material
Leaves of Hibiscus or Tridax or Tecoma or Spinach.

Procedure
1. Take 5 [Link] leaves. Wash them with distilled water and dry them with a blotting paper.
2. Cut the leaves into smaller bits and transfer them into a mortar. Add a pinch of sand or glass
powder, a few ml. of acetone and a pinch of CaCO3, and with help of a pestle grind thoroughly
until the leaf extract becomes dark green.
3. The extract is filtered into a beaker with the help of funnel and muslin cloth. Add 1-2 ml of
petroleum ether and close the beaker with a watch glass.
4. Cut a strip of Whatmann No. 1 chromatography paper (nearly 20 cms. long and 1.5 cm. width)
which can easily fit into the measuring cylinder. A pencil line is drawn about 2 cm from one end
of the paper.
5. The filtrate is spotted at the centre of the pencil line using the capillary tube. After about one
minute of air drying, some more filtrate is placed on the same spot. This step is repeated 5 times
so as to load sufficient quantity of the sample.

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 Botany

6. Solvent mixture of 10 ml. (9 ml petroleum ether

and 1 ml acetone) is taken in the measuring
cylinder.
7. The other end of the filter paper strip is placed
between the two halves of the split cork and is
allowed to hang freely in the measuring
cylinder such that the end bearing the pencil
mark is clearly above the solvent level. Suspend
the loaded chromatography paper into the
measuring cylinder containing solvent mixture.
8. Tighten the cork and leave the measuring
cylinder undisturbed.
9. Raising of the solvent on the filter paper is
noticed.
10. When the solvent has reached the bottom of the
cork, the filter paper is taken out and
allowed to air dry.

Observation
Four differently coloured horizontal zones or bands appear on the filter paper after drying.
Inference
After drying, coloured bands appear on the chromatography paper. Basing on their posi-
tion and colour, they are identified as Carotene (orange), Xanthophyll (yellow), Chlorophyll a
(bluish and green), Chlorophyll b (dark green) respectively in the descending order.

Precaution
The filter paper should not touch the walls of the container.

*****

Suggestions to the Teachers

1. If a split cork is not available, a pin or any metallic wire can be bent in ‘U'shape and its
pointed end is inserted into a normal cork. Through the other end, the filter paper can be
tagged to the pin and allowed to hang.
2. The filter paper can be dried by hanging it in the air with the help of gem clip fixed to a
horizontal thread just in the same manner as we dry clothes in our houses.
3. Any other glass container that is sufficient length and diameter can be substituted for the
measuring cylinder.

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 Botany

BOARD OF INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION, A.P., VIJAYAWADA

BOTANY PRACTICALS
Scheme of Valuation
(With effect from IPE March - 2014)

Time : 3 Hrs. Max. Marks : 30

1. Describe vagetative and floral characters of the given twig ‘A’ in technical terms. Draw labelled
diagrams of the twig with inflorescence and L.S. of flower. Give floral diagram and floral for-
mula. Identify it’s family. Marks : 06
Technical description of vegatative charecters - 1 Mark
Technical description of floral charecters - 2 Marks
Identification of the family - 1 Mark
Floral formula - ½ Mark
Floral diagram - ½ Mark
Labelled diagrams of Twing with inflorescence - ½ Mark
L.S. of flower - ½ Mark

II. Take T.S. of the given material ‘B. Stain, mount and leave the preparation for evaluation, Identify
it and draw a well labelled diagram (Sector only). (No need to write identification characters) -
Marks : 06
Preparation of slide - 3 Marks
Identification - 1 Mark
Labelled diagram (Sector only) - 2 Marks

III. Experiment ‘C’ Marks : 06

- Performing the experiment - 3 Marks
- Writing the Aim, principle, Observation and Inference/
result (no need to write procedure and no need to draw diagram) - 3 Marks (½ +1+1+½)

IV. Identify D,E,F,G,H giving reasons Marks : 05

(Diagrams are not needed) (Each 1 mark)
Identification - ½ Mark
Reasons - ½ Mark

V. Record and Herbarium Marks : 07

Record (Based on I and II year practical Syllabus) - 5 Marks
Herbarium (Minium of 15 herbarium sheets
representing the families included in the syllabus) - 2 Marks

109