Chapter 1: Didactics and Integration of ICTs into Language Teaching

INTRODUCTION : 1

Many teachers find it difficult to communicate their teaching contents and transform them
into abilities and skills that can be easily acquired by learners. Moreover, the learner by his turn
faces a great deal of difficulties that prevent him from grasping those contents. Consequently The
negative results are clearly noticed during classroom assessments. The main reason for that failure
might be due to the fact that our traditional curricula as well as our teaching methods put more
.emphasis on the lower cognitive teaching objectives such as recalling ,rather than the higher ones
On the other hand, we might ,by no means, be able to overcome those shortcomings unless we
intend to apply the reliable findings of the recent studies that focus on transforming the scholar
knowledge into teachable knowledge that fosters the learners 'competencies and establish the
appropriate environment to boost their creative abilities and motivate them to actively acquire
.knowledge
No one can ignore the fact that effective teaching is not limited to the teacher‟s ability to
master the content area of any teaching subject, but it rather, requires that the teacher should have
accurate and comprehensive knowledge of the components of the teaching process. And didactics is
the science that is interested in studying of interrelation of these components
The evolution of the concept of didactics :
Didactics was defined by Dolch as " the science of learning and teaching in general. It deals
"with learning in all possible forms and with teaching of all kinds at all levels
As for Cheval lard, didactics is defined as the science of dissemination (and .)Zierer&Seel,2012,p.1(
the non-dissemination, or even the retention) of knowledge and practices in a determined group of
,human – a school classroom, “the” society, an institution, etc (Chevallard
And to investigate the core of didactics, Jank and Meyer (2002) suggested the following
?questions: “Who should learn what?, from whom? ,when?, with whom?, where?, how?, with what
and for which purpose?” These questions are often addressed by various didactic approaches
The foundational period of .)Zierer&Seel,2012,p.1(
didactics goes back to the seventeenth century ,and it is well common to connect the first modern
-use of the term with Wolfgang Ratke (1571–1635), who presented a reform programmer, the so
called “Frankfurter Memorial” for schools in 1612 (Kansanen, 1992, p. 5). In those days didactics
was primarily known as “the art of teaching”. For Johann Amos Comenius, i.e. Jan Komensky
”didactics was an art. It was the art of “teaching everything to everybody ,) 6 –1592(
Comenius wrote the Didactica Magna 6 ) expecting that using both a new .)Uljens1997(
method and more effective teaching media would make it possible to teach everyone everything
“ both quickly and effectively. According to Folke 9 ): The French word )omnes omnis(
didactique” was derived from the Greek “Didactikos”, which means: “let us learn”, (i.e, we teach
each other, or I learn from you, and I teach you).Moreover, the term “Didasko” corresponds to I
, learn, while “Didaskon” means education Lourci, ). But according to Blankertz, didactics
however, should not be confused with the French term “didactique”, a term still used today for a
specific kind of instructional literature (Blankertz, 1987, p. 21). This usage has its roots in Greek
literature
Didactic object :3
Every teaching and learning process and at any level consists of three basic factors (teacher
learner, and the content ).These factors interact reciprocally forming the so-called “didactic
triangle”. According to Jean Houssaye, every teaching situation
can be described as a triangle consisting of three main poles: knowledge, teacher and learner. All
the teaching process is based on a particular relationship between two of these three elements and
the exclusion of the third with which each of the chosen elements must maintain contact
.)Houssaye,1996(

A figure: shows the three poles of didactics

The relationship between the poles of the didactic triangle that determines the learning
situation, which takes place through taking into account the balance between these poles when
planning and implementing according to each teaching-learning situation and not neglecting any of
its components, to avoid falling into what Mirieu called “drifts”. Philip Mirieu identifies three types
of drifts in which the teacher can fall during the planning and implementation process, and these
:types are as follows
Curriculum drift : a process whereby the learning experiences associated with a curriculum do not
.match the specific syllabus associated with desired outcomes
Demiurgic drift : the teacher on himself as a teacher and transmitter of knowledge
Psychological drift : the teacher focuses is totally on the learner and neglects the other two
.components
Branches of Didactics4
Legendre states in the “Dictionnaire actuel de l‟éducation ” that a distinction must be made
.whenever didactics is defined

.
 General Didactics 4.1
.The concept of General Didactics, is a unified body
General Didacticsdy of knowledge about teaching and .
learning can be applied in all the different disciplines. It represents the overarching theory of both
decision making on and processes of teaching and learning in societal institutions

4.2 Specific Subject

It is a type of a subject-related didactics that studies the conditions for the transmission of
“culture” specific to an institution as well as the conditions for the acquisition of knowledge by a
learner .This type of didactics allows teachers of a certain discipline or subject to help their learners
grasp the content taught with rigor and efficacy. It is also considered as a part of General Didactics,
and is equally concerned with laws, data and principles, but on a smaller scale, because it is related
to one academic subject, deals with a particular subject ,and uses particular teaching techniques

Basic concepts of didactic 5

,Although didactics is considered as a newly emerging science that relies on linguistics
epistemology, pedagogy and psychology, it has rapidly established and developed special
theoretical concepts for it
Didactic contract 5.1

The Didactic Contract typically implies the „modification‟ of knowledge. Brousseau1 997
describes the Didactic Contract as „a system of rules, mostly implicit, associating the students and
" the teacher, for a given piece of knowledge‟ p. ).This term was introduced by "Brousseau " and
Chevallard " in 1990, through which they stressed that the relationship between the teacher and the
learner is tied by a set of reciprocal obligations in a didactic situation that appear in the form of
behaviors based on clear rules explicitly or implicitly that are expressed. The teacher expects a set
of particular responses and behaviors from the learners, and in return the learners expect a particular
.set of behaviors from the teacher
The Didactic contract differs from the pedagogical contract in the way that it is not limited to
teaching strategies, but it rather goes beyond it to researching the contents and their methods of
teaching. The corner stone of the didactic contract is the students‟ acquisition of abilities, skills and
knowledge

Didactic Transposition 5.2

The notion of didactic transposition was introduced in the field of didactics of mathematics
by Yves Chevallard , and it refers to the transformation an object or a body of knowledge undergoes
from the moment it is produced, put into use, selected, and designed to be taught until it is actually
taught in a given educational institution(Chevallard , 9 , 99 ).The didactic transposition is the
process by which a content of knowledge is modified to adapt it to its teaching to a less technical
level, accessible to non-specialised students. In this way, wise knowledge is transformed into taught
knowledge , appropriate to the student's level (Chevallard,2005).The process of transposition is
described using a number of key subconcepts that are first „desynscretisation‟, which refers to the
 fact that the knowledge is cut off from its origin; second, „depersonalisation‟ because the
knowledge is no longer linked to its producer; third, „programmability‟, which is based on the
knowledge being „elementarized and organized‟ according to a progression and, finally, „publicity
and social control of learning‟ (Hudson ,2016
Didactic transposition involves a series of stages in which the scientific knowledge is
progressively adapted to the level of the learners. This knowledge is shaped according to the
objectives of the curriculum proposed by the educational authorities and, both the authors of the
school books and the teachers themselves in the classroom are involved in this process, making the
knowledge useful for the learners. When one wishes to “transpose” a body of knowledge from its
original habitat to school, specific work should be carried out to rebuild an appropriate environment
& with activities aimed at making this knowledge “teachable,” meaningful, and useful (Chevallard
:Bosch, 2013). One can dis tinguish trhree types of knowledge
a) Scholarly knowledge „savoir savant‟): Because the contexts of scientists in which scholarly
knowledge is constructed are not similar to the contexts of learners in school or other educational
.situations (Fensham, 2002)
b) The knowledge to be taught (Savoir a Enseigner): It is the one that is found in curricula and
textbooks and is derived from scientific knowledge. The main difference between them is that
scientific knowledge is characterized by broadness, openness, and fulfillment of pure scientific
purposes, while this knowledge is governed by closure and selection in order to serve the goals of
.an educational project
c) Learned Knowledge (Savoir Enseigné):The learned knowledge is represented in what is
actually circulated by teachers and the learners, and it derives its content from the knowledge to be
,taught (curricula and textbooks). It can also be taken from other tributaries such as exam topics
.forums, formative courses that the teacher undergoes, the teacher‟s own experiences...etc
,And according to chevallard, didactic transposition includes two major steps (Chevallard, 1991
a) External transposition: It refers to the process of selecting, adapting, organizing and declaring the
knowledge to be taught”beginning from scholarly knowledge and ending with all the teaching“
.materials that can be proposed in a given course (Bosch et al,2021)
b) Internal transposition : It refers to the process of transforming programmes and syllabi or the
knowledge to be taught” into the “actually taught knowledge” in classrooms. The teacher‟s role at“
this level is chiefly concerned with the functions of thinking and practice, in addition to the
evaluation and intervention to adapt the teaching ressources to correspond to the level and
.characteristics of his group of learners

Didactic Obstacle5.3
The word Didactic obstacles refers to the obstacles that prevent access to building knowledge
in good conditions, hinder the process of teaching and learning in the desired manner, and stand as a
stumbling block that hinders learners‟ control of concepts, and prevents them from acquiring
:knowledge, skills, and experiences in appropriate conditions .Obstacle can take two forms
a).Positive form: we consider the obstacle as positive when it is seen as a challenge, and turns into
.an exciting one that helps the learner to achieve his learning objectives and expectations
b).Negative aspect: the obstacle takes a negative form when it is regarded as a source of learner
.failure
 The nature of didactic obstacles531.;

According to ditactic experts, didactic obstacles are a result of two major causes
a) Epistemological causes: They refer to the teaching approach adopted in the classroom, such
.as opting for a methodology, or a teaching method that seems inappropriate for the learner
b) Psychological causes: They represent the perceptions and beliefs held by both the teacher
and the learner which stand as an obstacle that hinders the learning process. Educators believe that
.the student's first interaction with knowledge is clearly affected by his previous knowledge
Didactic representation 5.4.
Didactic representations are a set of common concepts and firm practical rules established by
individuals based on their experience, knowledge, and research results. These representations are
considered as a cornerstone in interacting with learners, planning for lessons to make learning
.happen
The teachers correct perception of the students‟ situations, their prior knowledge, personal
characteristics, and their way of thinking is one of the most important factors for success in
developing curricula, planning for lessons, and achieving the goals of the teaching
.[Link],these perceptions and beliefs relate to all teaching subjets
Learners‟ perceptions of any type of knowledge may happen to be more or less wrong, and
modern education considers that error is part of the learning process. Therefore, analyzing the
.learners‟ errors and identifying their sources is necessary to promote his educational performance
And if the teacher is required to modify the learners‟ beliefs and perceptions and help them
detecting their errors , and he is also required to plan his lessons on his practical perceptions of
knowledge, and on the assumptions of the teaching method that corresponds to the characteristics of
the learner
Didactical situations5 5.
The theory of didactical Situations began to develop in the 1960s in France, initiated by Guy
Brousseau who has led its development since that time. A first synthesis was published in 1997
,And a situation refers to a system of interactions between three poles: students .) Brousseau 99(
teacher and knowledge. And knowledge, according to Brousseau (1998), is a property of a system
constituted by a subject and a “milieu” in interaction. Learning occurs through this interaction: the
subject acts within and receives feedback from the milieu and the important role of the teacher is to
establish an environment that facilitates the learning process. And we can find different types of
:didactical situations
Situation of action
The “didactic situations” of action are those in which the learner, who is actively engaged in
the search for a solution to a certain problem, performs certain more immediate actions, which
result in the production of knowledge of a more operational nature (Catarino,2020,p.229) . (a) the
students are willing to adopt it as their own, and are interested in solving it to satisfy their own
curiosity or ambition; (b) the students have the means to construct the solution by themselves, either
by inventing a new procedure or choosing one among those they know, without, however, the
teacher suggesting which one to choose. In this situation ( Sierpinska,2003), knowledge appears as
 a means for solving a problem or a class of [Link] allows learners to demonstrate their
knowledge in the form of a decision making. Such a situation aims at creating a sort of interaction
.between the learner and the environment
Situation of action can be hard to organise and are rather time consuming,so it is probably
.realistic only to include a small number of such situations in a course (pederson,2010)

Formulation situation .
The “didactic situations” of formulation are those in which the learner already uses some
explicit theoretical models or schemes in attempts to solving a problem, in addition to showing an
.evident working with theoretical information in a much more elaborated way
Sierpinska mentioned that “ The milieu for the learners is developed on the basis of some
previously shared experience or activity: The learners exchange and compare observations between
themselves. They may not have the language to formulate their observations, so their main effort in
this situation goes into creating such a language and agree on some common meanings. The teacher
chairs the exchanges (in order to avoid chaos) and highlights (repeats louder, writes on the board)
.some formulations of the students, in case they may not have been heard by other learners
Knowledge, in this situation, appears as a result of a personal experience, which needs to be
communicated, and thus slightly de-personalized and decontextualized, in order to be understood by
others ” (Sierpinska,2003,p. )

Situation of validation

The “didactic situations” of validation are those in which The teacher takes on the role of the
theoretician evaluating the productions of other theoreticians, whose role, in the classroom, is
played by the students. The This situation requires the learners to have the ability to convince others
of the validity and legitimacy of the results reached by [Link] try to explain some
phenomenon, or to verify a theoretical conjecture. The teacher acts as the chair of a scientific
debate: s/he intervenes only to put some order in the debate among Learners, draw their attention to
possible inconsistencies, and encourage them to be more precise and systematic in the use of
concepts ( Sierpinska,2003) This situation is the most difficult and complex factor because it
requires providing explanation and contextualization of the proof (Brousseau, )

Didactics in the Algerian educational system 6

The term “Didactis” appeared first through some texts and not by survey, and it did not
reflect explicitly the actual meaning after independence, but what appeared in text are another term
that indicates its meaning, which is “methodology of teaching” . Grifou announced that“The first
Algerian official text regulating the Algerian school after independence dates back to 1965, and the
thing that distinguishes this text (this text was not mentioned) is that it cut off all connections with
the traditional pedagogies, whether it was related to Arabic or [Link] then, thanks to this
decisive text, we moved to the era of teaching methodologies (ie teaching methods) and in such a
.way both Arabic and French teaching methods were introduced (Greffou,1989,p.21)
In this regard, Abd al-Rahman bin Bouika 99 ) mentioned that the term “ Didactics”, which
 .”was translated in Algeria into“Subject Matter Didactics” or “ Didactics of a discipline
Ali bin Mohammed (1991) - the former Minister of Education – stated that the term “ Subject
Matter Didactics” appeared clearly and was officially used in the Algerian school at the beginning
of March, 1991 when the Algerian Ministry of Education organized a series of national forums at
that extended from the beginning of March to the end of April 1991 to carry) the Palais des Nations(
out a more in depth investigations regarding the subject of didactics in a variety disciplines
language and literature, didactics of scientific subjects, and didactics of social sciences and foreign(
languages).The main issue of the forums revolves around the following questions :What do we
teach? Whom do we teach? And how do we teach? these questions and others are meant to convey
,the idea that the teacher has become required more than ever to have access to modern information
,to have accurate knowledge of the learning mechanism, and all the steps of the educational process
.starting from defining the contents and ending with preparing and evaluating teaching materials

Integration of ICTs into Language Learning / Teaching

Technology involvement in education is nowadays undeniable starting from kindergarten and
reaching to higher education. It serves for effective language learning/teaching. Current language
education policies show tendency toward using different forms of technology to support instructional
processes, involve language learners in the learning process and provide authentic patterns of the
target culture. Language teachers can differentiate instruction (Tomlinson, 2001)and adapt classroom
activities and homework assignments according to different needs and expectations of the language
learners so as to foster language learning experience. ICT use assist instruction of foreign languages in
facilitating and mediating language learning to adequately meet the students’ needs and expectation
Contemporary education has become very advanced with the use of ICT. It has allowed quick access to
information not only in classrooms, but at home and in every field of daily life (Dang,2011). In ICT’s
rich environment, learners are exposed to a multitude of learning opportunities that they may
experience to develop their skills without being required to attend in classrooms. The application of
ICT is also beneficial in the provision of a wealth of resources to enable them become active learners
and creating content for a worldwide audience. The role ICT can best be seen when embeded in school
curricular for its importance in the sense that teachers and learners can anywhere and anytime be in
touch through the development of classroom based tele-conference (Divaharan and Koh, 2010). It is a
way to emphacise the shift from very teacher-centered approaches to learner-centered ones
(Richards, 1985)

:ICT and Language Learning

The integration of ICT in teaching and learning is not a method ; but a medium in which a variety of
methods, approaches and pedagogical philosophies may be implemented (Garret, 1991). The
effectiveness of ICT depends on how and why it is used and integrated in language programmes,
leading learners step-by-step to strengthen their knowledge of language through gradable
improvement. Several studies and papers have been carried out on ICT integration in teachingin
general. ICT-based activity enhances students learning (Motshegwe, 2005 p.10). Other scholars
likeYunus et al (2009) mentioned that surfing the internet to get information”, and “searching for
words’ meaning and pronunciation” (Yunus etal 2009 p.1456) by learners indicates how important
English language teachers should include ICT use in the teaching and learning process of the English
Language.
Language instruction will be driven by new advances in computers, the internet, and mobile
technologies. The shift from a “read” Web to a “read/write” Web, encourages teachers to discover
new ways in which they may engage their students in computer-based educational activities. The
 work onto the World Wide Web is a means of providing an authentic global audience for classroom
productions. Easy access to new technologies in writing or speaking for a broader and more
international audience, gives the ability to pay more attention to ICT use by learners who not only
polish their work, but think more deeply about the content they produce, and consider cultural norms
more thoughtfully. Such access to information develops the process of learning a second language
that may be structured in different ways – in a classroom or at home, with or without a teacher,
emphasizing or minimizing grammar, gradually exposing the student to native speakers.

Advantages of ICT in foreign language teaching

The use of ICT has positive effects on foreign language teaching/learning. Its impact depends highly on the way it is
used, the teachers’ motivation and his “savoir-faire”. For Houcine (2011).The following impacts seem to be the most
obvious ones when using ICT to support foreign language teaching:

;Easy adaptation of the teaching materials with to circumstances, learner’s needs and response

;Ability to react upon the use of recent/daily news, it offers access to authentic materials on the web -

;Combine/use alternately (basic) skills (text and images, audio and video clip...) -

;Lectures become more interesting and less ordinary which boosts learners’ engagement -

- he focus on one specific aspect of the lesson (pronunciation, vocabulary...).

According to Padurean and Margan(2009),the advantages of ICT usage in foreign language teaching can be listed as:

1. Presentation Conrol:It shows the difference between computers and books. Books have a fixed
presentation, unlike computers, which can combine visual with listening materials, text with graphics and
pictures.

2. Novelty and creativity : Unlike old teaching methods using textbooks where all classes presenting a certain
topic are the same, with ICT a teacher can use different materials for each lesson.

3. Feedback : Computers provide a fast feedback to students` answers through error correction. It not only
spots the mistake but also corrects it, sometimes even giving the appropriate advice.

4. Adaptability : Computer programmes can be adapted by teachers to suit their students` needs and level of
language knowledge. Unlike books, which are produced in a single uniform format and need to be taught
irrespectively of students` problems, computer programmes are more learner- friendly. First and foremost,
the use of ICT and the internet particularly offer language learners the opportunity to use appropriately the
language that they are learning in authentic contexts. A second important benefit is cooperation and
collaboration with one’s peers that is usually practised in language classroom. A third major benefit in
blended language learning classrooms is effective tutorial of learners that ICT-based tools give to language
teachers. With the help of ICT-based tools and theconstantly growing number of available educational
resources language teachers can give individual and personalized guidance to their learners (Kumar and
Tammelin,2008).

The internet and language learning

The internet can be the best way to learn language other than immersion in an English speaking [Link]

advantages of online learning, can be summarized under the following headings (McLuhan,2012):

1 Access to interact in English without the need of travel.

2) Flexibility of language learning for users( when and where they want).

3) Response as instant feedback to learners that greatly enhances the learning experience.

4) Repeatability of encountering the target language until mastery is achieved.

5) Durability of the internet at 24/7.

6) Modality as a learning tool. A multi modal that fertilizes language acquisition successfully.

7) Specificity of learning. The learner is free to choose a variety in both what and with whom he/she will be learned.
Learning is tailored to learner’s precise makeup and needs.

8) Cost in that it offer services for pennies.

The internet-mediated communication allows users to share not only brief messages, but also creates lengthy
documents which facilitates collaborative writing (learning). Furthermore, learners can share graphics, sounds and
video. Thus, the internet helps create an environment where authentic and creative communication is integrated
into all aspects of thecourse (Rozgiene, Medvedeva and Straková,2008).

The application of ICT in foreign language teaching

The integration of ICT in teaching and learning is a medium in which a variety of approaches and pedagogical
philosophies may be implemented. However, ICT as a teaching aid is more complicated in that it demands more
specific skills from the teachers (Salehi, H and Salehi Z,2012). This teaching aid is prerequisite in modern and
contemporary learning environment (Kalnina and Kangro, ,2007). The electronic mail, internet, multi media,
collaborative platforms, undoubtedly, influence the process of everyday classroom teaching and learning. On the
other hand, using ICT allows peer communication outside [Link] exchange information in real time,
participate in blog discussions, work inteams on different projects, exchange emails, search for information, etc. The
increasing availability of authentic material offers a better insight into the culture, country and people of the target
language (Padurean and Margan,2009 ; Rozgiene, offers a better insight into the culture, country and people of the
target language (Padurean and Margan,2009 ; Rozgiene, Medvedeva and Straková, Z. (2008).

ICT in Behavioural and Educational Psychology

ICT for education is a key component for its success, learning competency, creativity, support to
create and meet complex demands in a particular context skill development in general. The
technology
implies the mobilization of knowledge, cognitive and practical skills, and social and behavioral
components, including attitudes, emotions, values, and motivations. For example, it plays a role of key
competence and interactivity in school, which learners are capable to use education technology
interactively that requires an awareness of new ways for individual’s creativities and life prosperity.
ICT based educational systems are vitally important to different degrees to optimize educational
opportunities and roles for students and learners in developing countries.