First Order Circuits
We will consider a few simple electrical circuits that lead to first order linear
differential equations. These are sometimes referred to as first order circuits.
The basic elements to be considered are:
1. Resistor
2. Inductor
3. Capacitor
The current 𝐼(𝑡), expressed in units of amperes, through one of these elements
is related to the voltage drop 𝑉 (𝑡), in units of volts, across it as follows:
1. For a resistor, 𝑉𝑅 (𝑡) = 𝑅𝐼(𝑡).
𝑑𝐼(𝑡)
2. For an inductor, 𝑉𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝐿 .
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) 1 ∫
3. For a capacitor, 𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐶 , or 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝐼(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡.
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
The unit for 𝑅 is the ohm (Ω), for 𝐿 the henry (H), and for 𝐶 the farad
(F). We will assume that 𝑅, 𝐿, and 𝐶 are constants. That is, they are
independent of time 𝑡 and also independent of the current 𝐼.
The analysis of closed composed of these elements and a voltage source
is governed by the following two laws of Kirchhoff.
1. Kirchoff ’s voltage law: In a closed circuit the sum of the volt-
age drops across each element of the circuit is equal to the impressed
voltage.
2. Kirchoff ’s current law: The sum of the currents flowing into and
out of a point on a closed circuit is zero.
We will analyze some circuits that consist of a single closed loop containing
a resistor and either a capacitor or an inductor connected to a power source
in series.
1
RC Circuit First we consider a circuit consisting 𝐸(𝑡)
of a simple loop containing a capacitor and a resistor
in series with a voltage source 𝐸(𝑡), as illustrated by
the following diagram. Suppose the capacitor holds
𝐶
an initial charge 𝑄0 = 0 and the switch is closed at
time 𝑡 = 0. What is the resulting current 𝐼(𝑡) in the .
closed loop for all times 𝑡 ≥ 0? Applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage law to the closed circuit gives 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑅
𝐸(𝑡), and using the voltage-current relationships for
resistors and capacitors gives
1 𝑡
∫
𝑅𝐼 + 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐸(𝑡). (1)
𝐶 0
Consider the case where 𝐸(𝑡) = 𝐸0 is constant. Then Eq (1) becomes
1 𝑡
∫
𝑅𝐼 + 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐸0 . (2)
𝐶 0
Notice that this equation is not a differential equation since it involves the
integral of 𝐼. There are two ways to make this into a differential equation
that we can solve. One option is to differentiate Eq (2) to reduce it to a
differential equation
𝑑𝐼 𝐼
𝑅 + = 0. (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
∫𝑡
The second way is to let 𝑄 = 0 𝐼(𝑠) 𝑑𝑠 be an antiderivative of 𝐼(𝑡). Then
Eq (2) becomes the initial value problem
𝑑𝑄 𝑄
𝑅 + = 𝐸0 , 𝑄(0) = 0. (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
We will first solve Eq (4). This is a constant coefficient linear first order
differential equation in the unknown function 𝑄. In standard form, it is
𝑑𝑄 𝑄 𝐸0
+ = (5)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑅
so the integrating factor is 𝑒𝑡/𝑅𝐶 . Multiplying Eq (5) by the integrating factor
gives the equation
𝑑𝑄 𝑡/𝑅𝐶 𝑄 𝑡/𝑅𝐶 𝐸0 𝑡/𝑅𝐶
𝑒 + 𝑒 = 𝑒 (6)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑅
2
which gives
𝑑 ( 𝑡/𝑅𝐶 ) 𝐸0 𝑡/𝑅𝐶
𝑒 𝑄 = 𝑒 . (7)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
Integrating gives
𝑒𝑡/𝑅𝐶 𝑄 = 𝐸0 𝐶𝑒𝑡/𝑅𝐶 + 𝐾, (8)
so that
𝑄 = 𝐸0 𝐶 + 𝐾𝑒−𝑡/𝑅𝐶 . (9)
The initial condition 𝑄(0) = 0 implies that 𝐾 = −𝐸0 𝐶 so the solution of
the differential equation for 𝑄 is
𝑄 = 𝐸0 𝐶(1 − 𝑒−𝑡/𝑅𝐶 ). (10)
Now differentiate this equation to get the current 𝐼(𝑡):
𝑑𝑄 𝐸0 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
𝐼(𝑡) = = 𝑒 . (11)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
Note that the current decreases from its initial value of 𝐸0 /𝑅 to 0 as 𝑡 → ∞.
As a second approach, solving Eq (3) with the initial condition 𝑅𝐼(0) = 𝐸0
obtained from Eq (2) by setting 𝑡 = 0, we get exactly the same result.
RL Circuit Consider now the situation where an
inductor and a resistor are present in a circuit, as in 𝐸0
the following diagram, where the impressed voltage
is a constant 𝐸0 . Kirchoff’s voltage law then gives
the governing equation 𝐶
𝑑𝐼
𝐿 + 𝑅𝐼 = 𝐸0 , 𝐼(0) = 0. (12) .
𝑑𝑡
The initial condition is obtained from the fact that 𝑅
the current in the system is zero at the instant when
the switch is closed. This equation is almost the
same as Eq. (4), where 𝑄 is replaced by 𝐼, 𝑅 by 𝐿, and 1/𝐶 by 𝑅. Thus,
the solution of Eq (12) is
𝐸0 𝐸0 −𝑅𝑡/𝐿
𝐼(𝑡) = − 𝑒 . (13)
𝑅 𝑅
Note that for this circuit, the current increases from its initial value of 0 to
its limiting value lim𝑡→∞ 𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐸0 /𝑅.
3
Exercises
1. Consider an 𝑅𝐶 circuit with 𝑅 = 10, 𝐶 = 2, 𝐸0 = 0. Suppose that the
initial charge on the capacitor is 𝑄(0) = 𝑄0 . Find the charge 𝑄(𝑡) for
𝑡 ≥ 0, and determine how long it takes for the charge to reach 10% of
its initial value.
2. Suppose that the switch in an 𝑅𝐶 circuit with 𝐸0 = 0 is closed at time
𝑡 = 0 when the capacitor has a charge of 𝑄0 . The current in the loop
for time 𝑡 ≥ 0 is given by
𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼0 𝑒−𝑡/𝑅𝐶 ,
where 𝐼0 = 𝐼(0+ ) = lim 𝑡 → 0+ 𝐼(𝑡) is the “jump" in the current at
time 𝑡 = 0 when the switch is closed. What is the value of 𝐼0 ? (Hint:
𝐼(𝑡) = 𝑄′ (𝑡) for all 𝑡 > 0, where 𝑄(𝑡) = 𝑄0 𝑒−𝑡/𝑅𝐶 .)
3. Consider an 𝑅𝐶 circuit with 𝑅 = 100, 𝐶 = 0.1, and 𝐸0 = 0. Suppose
that the initial charge on the capacitor is 𝑄(0) = 50 and the switch is
closed at time 𝑡 = 0.
(a) Find the charge for 𝑡 ≥ 0.
(b) Compute the current 𝐼(𝑡) = 𝑄′ (𝑡) for 𝑡 > 0.
(c) What is the “jump" in the current at 𝑡 = 0.
Consider an 𝑅𝐿 circuit with a constant source voltage 𝐸0 and initial current
𝐼(0) = 0. For the parameter values in each of Exercises 4 through 6,
(a) find the current 𝐼(𝑡) for 𝑡 ≥ 0;
(b) find lim𝑡→∞ 𝐼(𝑡);
9
(c) find the time at which 𝐼(𝑡) = 10
lim𝑡→∞ 𝐼(𝑡).
4. 𝑅 = 100; 𝐿 = 0.1
5. 𝑅 = 10; 𝐿 = 0.1
6. 𝑅 = 10; 𝐿 = 1