UNIT - II Individual Behaviour

Personality – types – Factors influencing personality

– Theories – Learning – Types of learners – The
learning process – Learning theories –
Organizational behaviour modification,
Misbehaviour – Types – Management Intervention.
Emotions - Emotional Labour – Emotional
Intelligence – Theories. Attitudes – Characteristics –
Components – Formation – Measurement- Values.
Perceptions – Importance – Factors influencing
perception – Interpersonal perception- Impression
Management. Motivation – importance – Types –
Effects on work behavior.
2.1 Personality-Types-Factors Influencing Personality-Theories

Personality means how a person affects others and how he understands and views himself as well
as the pattern of inner and outer measurable traits and the person-situation interactions (Fred
Luthans).

According to Stephen P. Robbins, personality is the sum total ways in which an individual reacts
and interacts with others. It may be defined as those inner psychological characteristics that both
determine and reflect how a person responds to his environment.

Personality can be defined as those inner psychological characteristics that both determine and
reflect how a person responds to the environment.

The word personality is derived from a Greek word “persona” which means “to speak through.”
Personality is the combination of characteristics or qualities that forms a person’s unique identity.
It signifies the role which a person plays in public. Every individual has a unique, personal and
major determinant of his behavior that defines his/her personality.

Big Five Personality Traits : There are five commonly accepted dimensions or traits of our
personalities. Of course, there are other personality traits, but these five provide a framework for
our understanding of what is personality.
 Openness - Openness is an individual’s willingness to entertain and tolerance for the novel,
different, or unexpected. Open people are generally more curious, creative, flexible, adaptable,
accepting of feedback/input, and welcome to learning.
 Conscientiousness - Conscientiousness is defined by a person's thoughtfulness and effort to
maintain awareness in a given context. Conscience people are generally thought to be motivated,
organized, systematic, punctual, achievement-oriented, and dependable. In fact, conscientiousness
is most closely associated with high performance in most tasks.
 Extraversion - Extraversion concerns the extent to which a person is motivated by interaction
with others or been sociable.
 Agreeableness - Agreeableness concerns the extent to which an individual is predisposed to argue
with others. Characteristics that avoid conflict and make a person agreeable include niceness,
kindness, warmth, tolerance, sensitivity, and trustworthiness.
 Neuroticism - Neuroticism is a mental complex that results in severe emotional consequences.
It is related to feelings of stress, anxiousness, irritability, aggressiveness, depression, and
moodiness. The extent to which each of these personality characteristics is present in an individual
or employee is a question of degree.
Types of Personality :

Personality can be classified on the basis of an individual’s occupation and vocational options.
John Holland grouped these features into six personality types –
 Realistic Personality − These types of individuals have a realistic personality. They are shy in
nature, stable, and practical. They belong to professions like agriculture, engineering, fashion
designing, etc.
 Investigative Personality − These types of individuals are analytical, curious, and have an
independent mind-set. They belong to professions like writing, teaching, medicine, etc.
 Artistic Personality − These types of individuals have great imagination and are idealistic.
They belong to professions like fine arts, music, photography, etc.
 Social Personality − These types of individuals are sociable, helpful and cooperative in nature.
They belong to professions like teaching, social work, counseling, etc.
 Enterprising Personality − These types of individuals are ambitious, adventurous and energetic.
They belong to professions like business, journalism, consultancy, etc.
 Conventional Personality − These types of individuals are practical, organized, and logical.
They belong to professions like training, nursing, finance, etc.

Most people fall into anyone of these six personality types.

People sharing the same personality type and working together create a work environment that fits
their type. For example, when enterprising persons are together on a job, they create a work
environment that rewards enthusiastic and innovative thinking and behavior - an enterprising
environment.

People opt for such environments where they can use their skills and abilities, and freely express
their values and attitudes. For example, Realistic types search for stable work environment; Artistic
types look for Artistic environment, and so forth.

People who work in an environment similar to their personality type are more likely to be
successful and satisfied with their job. For example, artistic persons are more likely to be
successful and satisfied if they choose a job that has an artistic environment, like choosing to be a
music teacher in a music school -- an environment "dominated" by artistic people where innovative
abilities and expression are highly valued.

Understanding the theory and using it efficiently, aligns our core personality traits to fields that
nurture who we are, who we want to be, by offering a rewarding path towards professional and
personal growth.
Factors influencing Personality:

In the field of organizational behavior, personality is the aggregate of a person’s feelings, thinking,
behaviors and responses to different situations and people. A person with a positive attitude can
direct his thoughts, control his emotions and regulate his attitude. Every person has a different
personality and there are a lot of factors which contribute to that personality. We call them the
‘determinants of personality’or the‘factors of personality’.

i. Environmental Factors.
ii. Physical Factors.
iii. Situational Factors.
iv. Hereditary.
v. Family and Social Factors.
vi. Identification Process.
vii. Cultural Factors.
viii. Intelligence.
ix. Sex Differences.
x. Psychological Factors.

i. Environmental Factors: Among the factors that exert pressures on our personality
formation are the culture in which we are raised; our early conditioning; the norms among
our family, friends, and social groups; and other influences that we experience. These
environmental factors play a substantial role in shaping our personalities. It establishes the
attitudes, values, norms, and perceptions of an individual. Based on the cultures and
traditions, different senses of right and wrong are formed in individuals. These
environmental factors also include the neighbourhood a person lives in, his school, college,
university, workplace, friends, parents; everybody plays a role as the determinants of one’s
personality.
ii. Physical Factors: There are many physical factors which will determine a person’s
personality. These physical factors include the overall physical structure of a person: his
height, weight, color, sex, beauty, body language, etc. Physical factors are one of the major
reasons for that. Most of the physical structures change from time to time, and so does the
personality. With exercises, cosmetics, surgeries etc. many physical features are changed,
and therefore, the personality of the individual also evolves.
iii. Situational Factors: The situational factors can be commonly observed when a person
behaves contrastingly and exhibits different traits and characteristics. In this way,
situational factors impact a personality in a significant way. They often bring out the traits
of a person that are not commonly seen. An individual’s personality, although generally
stable and consistent, does change in different situations. The different demands of
different situations call forth different aspects of one’s personality. So we shouldn’t look
 at personality patterns in isolation (canon, & Porter, 19&). This aspect is very important
for organization behavior because the manager has control over the organizational
situation.
iv. Hereditary: Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical
structure, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, muscle composition, and reflexes,
energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are generally considered to be
either completely or substantially influenced by the parents. Hereditary predisposes a
certain mental, physical and emotional states. It has been established through research that
those psychological characteristics can be transmitted through hereditary. However such
conclusive proof is not available for human beings.
v. Family and Social Factors: Family and social groups have the most significant impact on
personality development. Parents and other family members have a strong influence on the
personality development of the child. Parents have more effect on personality development
as compared to other members of the family. Besides a person’s home environment and
family members, there are other influences arising from social factors like- friends,
neighbor, relatives, etc. These groups have their impact through socialization and
identification process.
vi. Identification Process: The identification process occurs when a person tries to identify
himself with some person to whom he feels ideal in the family. First identification can be
viewed as the similarity of behavior between the child and the model. Second identification
can be looked in as the child motives or desires to be like the model. Third, it can be viewed
as the process through which the child actually takes on the attributes of the model.
vii. Cultural Factors: Culture is the underlying determinant of human decision making. It
generally determines attitude towards independence, aggression competition, and
cooperation. Each culture expects and trains its members to behave in a way that is
acceptable to the group
viii. Intelligence: There is definitely some relationship between intelligence and personality.
Intelligence is mainly hereditary. Persons who are very intelligent can make a better
adjustment in home, school, and society than those persons who are less intelligent.
ix. Sex Differences: Boys are generally more assertive, tough-minded and vigorous. They
have better need to succeed with regard to interest and aptitudes. Boys show interest in
machinery and outdoor activities. They prefer adventures. But girls are less vigorous
games. They are quieter and interested in personal appearance. They are more injured by
personal, emotional and social problems. Thus sex differences play a vital role in the
development of the personality of an individual.
x. Psychological Factors: Psychological factors play a big role in the functioning of human
behavior and the development of one’s personality. Some of the psychological factors are-
motives, acquired interests, attitudes, character, intellectual capacities etc. Beyond the joint
influence of these factors however, the relative contribution of each factor to personality
varies with the character or personality process involved and perhaps with the individual
concerned.
 Theories of Personality

Sheldon’s Classification (Somatotype/Body Build)

Sheldon (1942) described personality types in terms of their body build or somatotype.
He believed that physical structure of the body is the determinant factor of the personality
characteristics of the individual. He assigned each individual to one of the following three
categories based on the person’s somatotype.
Sheldon’s Classification of personality types

Personality Somatic description Personality Characteristics

Type

Endomorphic Person having very fat, soft and Relaxed, sociable, found of eating,
round body (abdomen part) affectionate

Mesomorphic They have rectangular, Physical people filled with energy,

muscular and strong body adventurous, courage and assertive
tendencies

Ectomorphic They have fragile, thin and They show signs of brainy, artistic,
long type body and introverted

Kretschmer’s Classification (Constitutional Type)

Ernest Kretshmer a German psychologist, who classified human beings on the basis of
their physical constitution. He attempted to establish a relationship between personality
characteristics and body build of the individual. He classified human beings in the
following way.
.Kretschmer’s Classification of personality types

Personality Types Personality Characteristics

Pyknic Sociable, jolly, easy going, and good nurtured

(person having fat body)

Athletic Energetic, optimistic and adjustable character

(muscular or balanced body)

Leptosomatic (Lean and thin body) Shy, temperamental, reserved and pessimistic
Jung’s Typology
Carl G Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, attempted to classify human beings on two behavioural
dimensions such as Extrovert and Introvert. This classification is made in accordance
with their behavioural characteristics exhibited by the individuals in their social as well
as personal situations. The detailed description of each type is given below.
Extrovert
Extroverted people are more outward oriented. They try to establish good relationships
with other people. They feel bored sitting inside the room and being alone. They deal
with people intelligently in social situations. They are conventional, outgoing, social and
friendly. They are free from unnecessary worries. Social workers, politicians, business
executives may be typed as extroverted people.
Introvert
In contrast to the extrovert people, Introvert people always try to withdraw themselves in
social situations, especially when they faced emotional conflicts and stress in their
environments. They are shy, avoid situations to interact with other people, and enjoy the
loneliness. Scientists and philosophers are more likely to exhibit these behavioural
characteristics.
Trait theories of personality
Trait means the mode of behaviour of an individual which is manifested in a number of
life situations consistently. It is the general behavioural pattern of a person that he/she
exhibits in most of their life situations. Example: if a person is basically honest; s/he used
to respond in an honest way in their life situations where they can also exhibit dishonesty,
it is because of the trait (honest) s/he has. Such as shy, lazy, dull, dependent, etc are also
examples of traits.
“Allport defines trait as a neuro psychic structure having the capacity to render many
stimuli functionally equivalent, and to intimate and guide equivalent (meaningfully
consistent) forms of adaptive and expressive behaviour”. More clearly we can understand
that trait is a response/act pattern of an individual in the same way in various situations
which is developed through his past life experiences. Trait approaches assume that the
personality of an individual is a combination of different behavioural traits that can be
discovered through continuous and objective observation of his behaviour.
Allport theory
According to Gorden W Allport uniqueness of every individual is the chief characteristics
of human beings. Each and every person responds in different ways to the same situation.
For example; imagine an individual got a purse from a bus. How s/he will respond to the
situation. Whether s/he will try to enquire the owner of the purse for give back to her/him
or become happy for getting money unexpectedly etc. Consider the same incidents with
many individuals. We are sure that people would respond differently depending on the
traits they have. Because no two people are alike, no two individuals respond in the same
way to identical stimuli. Individuals differ on the basis of their traits, their traits direct
their actions. These traits motivate human beings to behave the way they do. Allport
characterised traits by the degree to which they govern personality. Allport distinguished
traits into three levels.
A) Cardinal traits
These are the most powerful and pervasive traits. These traits dominate a person’s whole
life. Few people possess cardinal traits. That people live flooded with that trait. When
they do things , we often think of them primarily in terms of those traits. For example.
Altruism is a cardinal trait in the personality of Mother Theresa, Quest for knowledge can
be seen in -Albert Einstein, and social justice is the cardinal trait vested in- Mahatma
Gandhi
B) Central traits
The personality of most people are characterised by five or more central traits rather than
a single cardinal trait. These are the kind that might be included in a letter of
recommendation such as punctual, honest, obedient, sincere, hardworking etc. Central
traits are called building blocks of personality. Suppose if we say about any individual
that s/he is very honest, regular, sincere, that is because s/he is functioning as per
respective central traits.
C) Secondary traits
These are the least important traits among the three, because they affect relatively narrow
aspects of human beings' lives. Some people give more importance to these types of
secondary traits in their life, but don’t have a relevant impact on their personality.
Preference for wearing a particular branded shirt, reading western novels, eating only
chocolate etc are the examples for secondary traits.
Cattell’s classification (Factor theory)
Raymond B Cattell classified the traits into four. According to him behaviour of an
individual is determined by the interaction of traits and situational variables. He defined
traits as a structure of the personality which can be inferred from the specific behaviour
of the individual in different situations.
1) Common traits
Common traits are the traits which all individuals have to some degree irrespective of
whether they are cruel or kind. For example every person holds some degree of
truthfulness, anger, cooperative mind etc
2) Unique traits
Unique traits are the traits that form a peculiar pattern within the individual. These traits
are unique to a person. Unique patterns brand an individual as he is temperamental,
helping, aggressive, cooperative etc.
3) Surface trait
Personality of an individual is determined by traits which are possessed by him. Some
traits are hidden and some of them are open or can be easily recognised by the overt
manifestation of the behaviour of the person. Surface traits fall under this category. For
example curiosity, dependability, tactfulness, timidity (shy and nervous), boldness etc are
the surface traits.
4) Source traits
Source traits are the underlying structure or sources of the personality that determine the
behaviour of the individual. These are the building blocks of personality. It exists at a
deeper level of the personality and are the causes of behaviour in different dimensions
over a period of time. For example dominance, submission is the example of source
traits. A person holding dominance traits means that he tends to lead all social situations
where he is indulged. Cattell identified 16 source traits that comprise the basic structure
of the personality and has developed a personality test to measure them. Hence it also
called factor theory of personality
. They are following.
1. “Warmth
2. Reasoning
3. Emotional stability
4. Dominance
5. Liveliness
6. Rule Consciousness
7. Social boldness
8. Sensitivity
9. vigilance
10. Abstractness
11. Privateness
12. Apprehension
13. Openness to change
14. Self reliance
15. Perfectionism
16. Tension”
EYESENCK’S HIERARCHICAL THEORY
It was the [Link], a German-born British psychologist who synthesised the type and
trait approaches of personality. He defined type as a group of interrelated traits, which
means that having several similar traits within the individual creates him as a particular
type. Based on their traits, they behave in a particular manner or branded them as a
particular type, such as psychotic, neurotic etc. This reflects their personality. According
to Eysenck each personality type is the net result of the behaviour organization at four
hierarchical levels which are given below.
1) Specific response level
A trait starts from the particular response to any single stimuli. For example a child who
smiles at a stranger or s/he blush at strangers. Both are the specific responses to stimuli. It
constitutes the lowest level in the hierarchy.
2) Habitual response level
Here the similar responses are repeated in parallel situations. The child who could smile
at strangers can make friendship easily with others while the child who blushes or looks
reserved retains their hesitancy with talking to others. At this stage the traits become their
habit. It constitutes the habitual response level of behaviour organization. For example,
Hesitancy in talking to strangers, easily making friendships with others, inability to easily
strike friendships etc.
3) Trait level
Trait level is the third stage in the hierarchy. At this stage the habitual act of any
individuals which have similarities are organized to form groups called traits. For
example the children who formed the habit of sitting aloof, hesitancy to talk with others,
tendency of withdrawing from responsibilities, no social relations can be organized as a
particular group, can be named the trait as shyness. Another example is friendly.
4) Type level
The fourth level is the organisation of these traits into a general type. A type is defined as
a group of correlated traits. Traits which are similar in nature given birth to a definite
type. Traits like persistence, rigidity, shyness etc have been grouped into a type termed as
introversion. Hence a child holding the traits like persistence, rigidity, shyness look like a
reserved and this type of child can be called an introvert.
Personality dynamics
Eyesenc clearly explained that human behaviour and personality is build up through four
hierarchical stages starting from specific response level to the definite personality type.
He derived three basic personality dimensions through the hierarchical organization of
behaviour. These three basic dimensions refer to definite personality types with high and
low ends of each dimension. Through the personality scale people can identify their
personality score and thereby the extent of their personality on various points between the
two dimensions. The dimensions are discussed below.
1) Introversion-Extroversion
First dimension of personality dynamics is the Introversion- Extroversion type. The high
end of this dimension includes the highly extrovert. This type of person looks like more
sociable, outgoing, impulsive, optimistic and jolly people. The lower end includes highly
introverted people. These people behave like reserved, disciplined, reflective and well
ordered.
2) Neuroticism
Second dimension is neuroticism. Here we can see two types of people, one is
emotionally stable another is emotionally unstable. Emotional instability indicates the
lower end of the dimension. These types of people are called neurotic; they look like
moody, sensitive, anxious and restless or tense people. At the upper end of the dimension
is Emotional Stability. The people with stable emotions are called non neurotic. They
behave in most situations in a stable, calm, carefree, even tempered and dependable way.
3) Psychoticism
Eysenc illustrated psychoticism as the third dimension in his personality dynamics. The
people high on this dimension tend to be lonely, stone hearted, egocentric and opposed to
accepting social norms. The people at the low dimension found to be more empathic, less
adventurous and bold in their decision.

Point to be remembered
Personality: Personal identity of the individual derived from hereditary, familial as well
as environmental factors.
Traits: Mode of behaviour; Relatively permanent response of the individuals to stimuli
in various situations
2.2 Learning-Types of Learners-The Learning process-Learning
Theories
Learning can be defined as the activity or process of acquiring knowledge or skill by studying,
practicing, being taught, or experiencing something.
Individual behavior can be defined as how an individual behaves at work.
A person’s behavior is influenced by the following factors –
o Attitude
o Perception
o Personality
o Stress
o Belief
o Norms or other psychological matters
The factors influencing individual behavior are –
Perception − It is the result of various senses like feeling, seeing, hearing etc.
Attitude − We can either have a positive attitude or negative attitude, like i like my job is
expressing a positive attitude towards my work.
Personality − For example, some people seem to be very friendly, while there are some who take
time to open up.
Values − It influences perception of problem and marks individual’s decision making process. 
Emotions − There are happy moments we cherish and the sad moments like anger, frustration, etc.
that we try to forget.

Change through Learning:

The more we learn the more we change, as learning is a continuous process. Now let us see that
how learning affects individual behavior. There is a change in the attitude of a person due to
learning which can take place due to the following factors –

 Role of parenting − As we all know that parents are the first tutors of a child. They teach a child
how to walk, talk, eat, etc. A child tries to imitate the behavior of parents. So, it plays a vital role
in grooming an individual’s personality.
 Education − The very second place of learning is the school and college where an individual
chooses to pursue his/her education. It is the place where an individual’s personality is further
polished with respect to the parenting values.
 Job training − An individual is prepared to be presentable in the company and learns
organizational traits.
 Manipulation of rewards The above seen points are the key elements that are responsible for the
change in a person’s behavior.

Types of Learning:
1. Skill Learning: The child acquires skills from birth. His body parts learn to handle things. He
moves his legs and starts crawling. In the source of time, he learns other motor skills, such as
walking, speaking, drawing, writing, reading, playing music, cycling and swimming, etc.
2. Perceptual Learning: The child receives sensation through his senses, and he gives meaning to
each sensation. The initial sensations of the baby do not differentiate to such an extent that he is
unable to distinguish between one object and another. Over time, he recognizes specific objects,
and perceives them separately.
3. Conceptual Learning: Just as concrete thinking leads to abstract thinking; conceptual learning
is followed by conceptual learning. A concept is a general idea, universal in character. A child sees
a particular cow, and forms some idea of a cow with certain characteristics. The idea here is based
on a particular cow. This is a special notion but when the child sees a number of cows with some
common characteristics, he discovers some common qualities in all the cows, and on the basis of
these he forms the concept of ‘cow’. It is based on the assumption that has been generalised.
4. Associative learning: Associative learning helps conceptual learning to gather a wealth of
knowledge. New concepts are tagged as knowledge through association with previous concepts
and as such.
5. Appreciation Learning: Whereas conceptual learning is on the affective side. A child, from the
very beginning, makes use of his innate quality of aesthetic sensitivity, and acquires chromatic
concepts from appreciation.
6. Attitudinal Learning: Attitudes are generalized dispositions to certain concepts, things, persons,
or activities. A child develops a sense of affection towards his mother, a sense of respect for the
teacher and an attitude of belonging towards the family. His attitude towards the game is the most
favourable. All this he gradually learns and adopts.

Other types of Learning:

1. Motor Learning: Most of our activities in our daily life refer to motor activities. One has to
learn them to maintain their regular life, for example walking, running, skating, driving, climbing
etc. All of these activities involve muscular coordination.
2. Oral Learning: This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication tools
we use. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds etc. are the tools used in such activities.
We use words for communication.
3. Concept learning: It is a form of learning that requires higher order mental processes like
thinking, reasoning, intelligence etc. We learn different concepts from childhood. For example,
when we look at a dog and attach the word ‘dog’, we learn that the word dog refers to a particular
animal. Concept learning involves two processes, viz. Abstraction and Generalization. This
learning is very useful in recognizing, identifying things.
4. Discrimination Learning: Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing appropriate
responses to these stimuli is called discrimination learning. For example, sound horns of various
vehicles like buses, cars, ambulances, etc.
5. Learning of Principles: Individuals learn certain principles related to science, maths, grammar,
etc. to manage their work effectively. These principles always reflect the relationship between two
or more concepts. Example: formula, law, union, correlation, etc.
6. Problem Solving: It is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive
abilities – such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc. It is very
useful to overcome the difficult problems faced by the people.
7. Learning Attitude: Attitude is a tendency that determines and guides our behavior. We develop
different perspectives about people, things and everything we know right from our childhood. Our
behavior can be positive or negative depending on our attitude. Example: Attitude of nurse towards
her profession, patients etc.

Types of Learners:

There are following types of learners:

1. Visual Learners
2. Auditory Learners
3. Kinesthetic Learners
Visual Learners:
 Visual learners learn primarily through the written word.
 They tend to be readers who diligently take down every word.
Auditory Learners:
 Auditory learners learn primarily through listening.
 They focus their ears and attention on your words, listening carefully to everything you say.
 They like to talk rather than write and relish the opportunity to discuss what they’ve heard.
Kinesthetic Learners:
 Kinesthetic learners learn better by doing
 This group learns best when they can practice what they’re learning
 They want to have their hands on the keyboard, the hammer, or the test tube because they think
in terms of physical action.

Learning Process:
The learning process has the following steps:
1. Stimuli
2. Attention
3. Recognition
4. Translation
5. Reinforcement
6. Behavior
7. Reward
8. Habits
9. Motives
10. Efforts
1. Stimuli: Stimuli are any objects and language which draw the attention of people.
Employees get stimuli from the actions of their superiors. Superiors tell and advice
employees who pay attention to these stimuli. All the stimuli may not be fully attended to.
2. Attention: The degree of attention depends upon the nature of stimuli. All stimuli are not
paid attention to. Technical and interesting stimuli are highly attended. Career-oriented
stimuli are generally accepted by employees. The personality levels of employees influence
their desires to learn, motives for need fulfilment and tension reduction.
3. Recognition: Attention-paid stimuli are recognised as acceptable factors of improvement
and new life styles. Employees paying attention to stimuli are recognising the stimuli for
learning purposes. The levels of recognition depend upon the levels of values, preferences,
needs and desires of the employees.
4. Translation: The translation and evaluation process is a crucial point for implementing
the stimuli in behaviour through reinforcement. Employees behave properly through
attitude changes, objectivity, mental and physical development. It is observed in better
performances.
5. Reinforcement: Reinforced perception is learning. The perception process includes
stimuli, attention, recognition, translation and behaviour. Perception leads to learning, but
perception itself is not learning unless it is reinforced. Repeated action is reinforcement.
Reinforcement may be positive, negative, punishment and extinction. Learners learn as per
their perception levels. Generally positive reinforcement is more effective for making
permanent changes in behaviour.
6. Behavior: Learning changes behaviour through reinforcement of perceived knowledge. It
makes permanent changes in behaviour. A temporary change in behaviour is not learning.
Positive behaviour gives rewards to employees.
7. Reward: Employees expect rewards for learning. If the translated behaviour provides a
reward, it is accepted, otherwise it is not accepted. Employees develop their behaviour into
habits. Rewards may be monetary or non-monetary.
8. Habits: A permanent change in behaviour becomes a habit which helps continuous
improvement in behaviour and performance. Employees develop the habit of selfappraisal
and development. It helps to instil creativity and confidence in employees who are
encouraged to behave properly again and again.
9. Motives: Motives depend on the level of satisfaction. Employees getting more satisfaction
through learning develop high motives. Less satisfied learners have low motives. Learning
is complete only when motives are fully realised and translated into efforts.
10. Efforts: Habits help achieve good efforts and performance. This is a continuous process.
Efforts are the automatic outcome of good habits which are acquired through the learning
process. Self development is possible through self-effort. Employees willing to develop
themselves are self motivated and effort-oriented.
Theories of Learning:
Theories of learning have been developed as models of learning which explain the learning process
by which employees acquire a pattern of behavior. There are four theories of learning discussed
below.
1. Classical Conditioning Theory
2. Operant Conditioning Theory
3. Social Learning Theory
4. Cognitive Learning Theory

1. Classical Conditioning Theory: Classical conditioning is a type of conditioning in which a

person reacts to certain stimuli that would not normally produce a response. Classical conditioning
is acquiring a new response (the conditioned response) to a previously neutral stimulus (the
conditioned stimulus) that reliably signals the arrival of an unconditioned stimulus. It is a learning
process to add a particular thing to our environment to predict what will happen next. Classical
conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus is combined with an unconditioned stimulus.
Typically, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is an unbiased stimulus like the sound of a tuning fork,
the unconditioned stimulus (US) is biologically dominant like the taste of food and the
unconditioned response (UR) to an unconditioned stimulus is an unintentional one, it is a reflex
reaction such as salivation or sweating. After this pairing process is repeated (for example, learning
may have already occurred after a pairing), an individual shows a conditioned response (CR) to
the conditioned stimulus, when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. The conditioned
response is mostly similar to the unconditioned response, but unlike the unconditioned response,
it must be acquired through experience and is almost temporary.

2. Operant Conditioning Theory: Operant conditioning theory is also known as instrumental

conditioning. This principle is a learning process in which behaviour is sensitive to or controlled
by its consequences. The second type of conditioning is called operant conditioning. Here, we
learn that a particular behavior usually has a reward or punishment. What Pavlov did for classical
conditioning, Harvard psychologist B.F. Skinner did it for operant conditioning. Operant
conditioning argues that one’s behavior will depend on a variety of situations. People will
repeatedly behave in a specific way from which they will benefit. On the other hand, they will try
to avoid behavior where they will get nothing. Skinner argued that creating pleasant consequences
for specific forms of behavior would increase the frequency of that particular behavior. Let’s take
the example of a child. A child can learn to open a box to get candy inside, or learn to avoid
touching a hot stove. In comparison, classical conditioning develops a relationship between a
stimulus and a behaviour. The example can be further elaborated as the child may learn to tremble
by looking at candy or seeing an angry parent. In the 20th century, the study of animal learning
was ordered to analyse these two types of learning, and they are still at the core of behavioural
analysis.
3. Social Learning Theory: Social Learning theory is also called observational learning theory.
This theory emphasizes on learning through observation of other’s. The main assumptions of social
learning theory are as follows: –
A. Learning is not actually behavioural, rather it is a cognitive process that takes place in a social
context.
B. Learning can occur by observing a behaviour and observing the consequences of the behaviour
(known as vicarious reinforcement).
C. Learning involves observation, extracting information from those observations, and making
decisions about behaviour performance (known as observational learning or modelling). Thus,
learning may go beyond an observable change in behaviour.
D. Reinforcement plays an important role in learning but is not solely responsible for learning.
E. The learner is not a passive recipient of information. Understanding, environment and behaviour
all mutually influence each other.

4. Cognitive Learning Theory: Cognition defines a person’s thoughts, ideas, knowledge,

interpretation, understanding about himself and about the environment. This theory expresses the
belief that learning involves gaining knowledge and understanding it by absorbing information in
the form of principles, concepts and facts and then internalizing it. It assumes that a person learns
the meaning of various objects and events and also learns to respond based on the meaning given
to stimuli. The knowledge and understanding of learners can be enriched and internalized by
exposing them to learning materials e.g. Case studies , projects, problem solving activities can also
be used for this purpose. Self – directed learning, personal development, planning activities and
discovery learning process with the help of facilitator and mentors are underpinned by cognitive
learning theory. Cognitive theory has been used to explain mental processes as they are influenced
by both internal and external factors, which ultimately bring about learning in an individual.
Cognitive learning theory implies that the various processes related to learning are first explained
by analyzing the mental processes. It envisions that with effective cognitive processes, it is easier
to learn new information stored in memory over the long term. On the other hand, ineffective
cognitive processes result in learning difficulties that one can trace back.

2.3 Organizational Behaviour Modification

Modern behaviorists lay great emphasis on operant conditioning for molding behaviour of
individuals and motivating them. Behaviour modification, popularly known as OB MOD makes
use of various reinforcements to influence the behaviour of individuals. OB Mod is derived and
developed from the work of B.F. Skinner. This technique helps the managers in modifying or
eliminating undesirable behaviour and replacing it with behaviour that is more compatible with
goal attainment. OB Mod in simple words can be defined as a technique for modifying the
modifying or behaviour of the organisational members so that they are engaged in desirable
undesirable behaviour and. replacing it with behaviour. It can be used for motivating the
employees as well as for enhancing organisational effectiveness.
According to Stephen P. Robbins: “OB Mod is a programme where managers identify performance
related employee behaviours and then implement an intervention strategy to strengthen desirable
behaviour and weaken undesirable behaviours.”
According to Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn: “OB Mod is the systematic reinforcement of
desirable work behaviour and the non-reinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behaviour.
It includes four basic reinforcement strategies. Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
punishment and extinction”
A-B-C’s Of Behaviour Modification:
Behaviour modification as has been just explained helps the manager in eliminating or modifying
undesirable behaviour and replacing it with behaviour that’s more compatible. It further helps us
to understand how environmental contingencies influence behaviour.
There can be two contingencies of behaviour:
(i) The Antecedents. These are the events preceding the behaviour.
(ii) The consequences i.e. the events that follow a particular behaviour.
Both these variables put together form the A-B-C model. The main aim of this model is to change
Behaviour by managing its antecedents and consequences as is shown in the following diagram:

Steps in OB Modification: Fred Luthans and R. Kreitner developed and used OB Mod to represent
a behavioural approach to the management of human resources for performance improvement. The
steps given by them in applying the OB Mod are summarized in the following figure:
These steps are discussed as follows:
1. Identification: The first step in the OB Mod is identification of performance related behaviours.
First of all the behaviour should be identified as desirable or undesirable from the point of view of
the organisation. Then in the next stage, critical behaviours, that have significant impact on the
employees’ performance, should be given due attention. The critical behaviours can be identified
through discussions with the particular employee and his immediate superior as both are closely
intimated with the job behaviours. Some of the critical behaviours which affect job performance
are absenteeism or attendance, tardiness or promptness, complaints or constructive criticism,
listening to or not listening to the instructions, etc. If such behaviours are modified, good results
could be expected. Due attention should be given to the critical behaviour because they get
repeated again and again.
2. Measurement: After the critical behaviours of the employees have been identified, the next
step for the manager is to measure the frequency of the critical behaviour over time. The
measurement can be done by observation and by extraction of information from records. If the
frequency is within the acceptable limit, it will require no action, but if it exceeds the acceptable
limit, it will need immediate attention. The measurement of behaviour will also help the managers
in determining the success in changing the employees’ behaviour.
3. Analysis: At the next step, the managers will have to do a functional analysis of the behaviour
that requires modification. This analysis will determine what circumstances lead to a particular
type of behaviour, what are the consequences of such behaviour etc. Contingent consequences of
behaviour should be identified because these consequences have impact on subsequent behaviour.
Moreover, some contingent consequences appear to be affecting the critical behaviour on the
surface only, the functional analysis should try to find out the competing contingencies for every
behaviour also.
 4. Intervention: Once the critical behaviours have been identified and the circumstances which
cause such behaviours have been determined, the next step will be to develop an effective
intervention strategy. There are several strategies that can be used at this stage. These include
positive or negative reinforcement, extinction or punishment. The use of a particular strategy will
depend upon the type of situation faced. After developing and implementing a particular strategy,
the frequency of resulting behaviour is measured. If a behaviour change has occurred in the right
direction, the manager will select a reinforcement schedule that will maintain the desired
behaviour.
5. Evaluation: The last stage in OB Mod is the evaluation whether the intervention strategies are
working properly or not. The basic purpose of OB Mod is to bring change in undesirable
behaviours so as to improve performance. Evaluation will reveal whether the undesirable
behaviours have been substituted by desirable behaviour or not. If there has been a change in
behaviour, whether it is permanent or just temporary. Further, the evaluation will also show
whether there is improvement in the performance or not. If there is a positive change, it suggests
that the interventions are successful. However, if the change is not significant, it may call for
adoption of alternate and more appropriate strategies.
Utilities of OB Modification: OB Mod has been applied successfully in many organisations,
service as well as manufacturing, to improve organisational effectiveness and understand human
behaviour in organisations. It is an important technique of human resource management. The major
strengths and utilities of OB Mod are as follows:
1. Can be Put to Testing: OB Mod concentrates on a person’s external behaviour and this allows
a manager to realistically observe and deal with outward manifestations of behaviour. Since it
deals with observed behaviour it can be put to testing.
2. Development of Employees: OB Mod presents a set of tools by which people can learn new
behaviours and skills and thereby replacing undesirable behaviours. Positive reinforcement could
be used to encourage desirable behaviour by the employees. Social learning theory can be of great
use in the effective implementation of any training programme for the employees. Thus, OB Mod
is a great technique of developing the employees.
3. Control and Regulation of the Employees’ Behaviour: OB Mod provides various tools to the
managers for effectively controlling and influencing the behaviour of employees in the
organisation. Most behaviour in the organisation are learned, controlled and changed by the
consequences. The managers can use operant conditioning to control and regulate the behaviour
of subordinates by manipulating the reward system. The behavioural consequences that are
rewarding increase the probability of desired behaviour whereas aversive consequences decrease
the probability of desired response.
4. Easy to Understand and Use: The understanding of OB Mod techniques is comparatively easy.
Managers can use these without many problems. OB Mod has received great attention from several
organisations in the recent years. It is widely applied in large organisations in the areas of human
resource management, executive development, motivation, introduction of change and
organisational development.
2.4 MISBEHAVIOR-TYPES-MANAGEMENT INTERVENTION

Organizational misbehavior is defined as “any intentional action by members of organizations that

violate core organizational and/or societal norms. Inappropriate or illegal employee conduct can
create a wealth of problems for any employer. It can result in a decrease of productivity, damage
to the organization business or reputation, injuries to employees and customers, and exposure to
costly legal liability.

Employee misbehavior can take many different forms-from substance abuse that can create
workplace hazards, to workplace violence that threatens individual safety, to improper e-mail and
internet usage that can result in exposure to lawsuits and security violations. Now more than ever
before, employers need to be vigilant and knowledgeable as to the warning signs of inappropriate
or illegal conduct, the preventive measures to take, and what to do when employees engage in
behavior that is likely to put the company or others at risk.

Types of Misbehaviour

Misbehavior in organizational behavior can manifest in various forms. Here are some
common types of misbehavior in the workplace:

1. Interpersonal Misbehavior: This includes behaviors that involve negative interactions and
conflicts between individuals. It can include behaviors such as verbal abuse, insults, and
spreading rumors, gossiping, or undermining others' efforts.

2. Counterproductive Work Behavior: Counterproductive work behavior refers to actions

that hinder organizational goals and undermine productivity. Examples include intentionally
slowing down work, wasting resources, neglecting responsibilities, or engaging in non-work-
related activities during work hours.

3. Organizational Deviance: Organizational deviance involves behaviors that violate

formal or informal organizational norms and policies. It can include actions such as
stealing from the organization, engaging in sabotage, breaking safety protocols, or violating
company policies and procedures.

4. Absenteeism and Tardiness: Chronic absenteeism or frequent tardiness without valid

reasons can disrupt workflow, affect team dynamics, and create a negative impact on
productivity and morale.
5. Workplace Aggression: Workplace aggression includes physical or verbal aggression
directed towards coworkers or supervisors. It can involve threats, physical violen ce, or the
use of abusive language.

6. Cyber Misbehavior: With the increasing reliance on technology, cyber misbehavior

has become a concern. It includes actions such as cyberbullying, unauthorized use of
company resources, online harassment, or spreading malicious rumors or false information
online.

7. Ethical Violations: Ethical misbehavior encompasses actions that violate ethical standards
or principles. It can include engaging in conflicts of interest, accepting bribes, engaging
in fraudulent activities, or misrepresenting information.

8. Sexual Harassment: Sexual harassment refers to unwelcome sexual advances, requests for
sexual favors, or other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature that creates a hostile w ork
environment or interferes with an individual's work performance. 9. Discrimination:
Discrimination involves treating individuals unfairly or differentially based on protected
characteristics such as gender, race, religion, age, or disability. It can include actions such as
biased hiring or promotion decisions, exclusionary practices, or creating a hostile work
environment based on discriminatory behavior.

It's important for organizations to have clear policies and procedures in place to address
and prevent these types of misbehavior. Creating a positive work culture, providing training
on appropriate workplace behavior, fostering open communication, and enforcing
disciplinary actions when necessary can help deter and address misbehavior effectively.

Management intervention

Management intervention refers to the proactive steps taken by managers or leaders within an
organization to address issues, improve performance, and guide employee behavior
towards desired outcomes. These interventions are aimed at resolving problems,
maximizing productivity, enhancing teamwork, and creating a positive work environment.
Here are some common management interventions:

1. Coaching and Mentoring: Managers can provide individual coaching and mentoring
to employees to support their development, provide feedback, and help them overcome
challenges. This intervention involves regular communication, goal setting, and providing
guidance to enhance performance and foster personal growth.

Performance Feedback: Managers play a crucial role in providing constructive feedback

to employees regarding their performance. Regular performance evaluations, one -on-one
meetings, and feedback sessions allow managers to identify areas of improvement,
acknowledge strengths, and provide guidance for achieving goals.

3. Training and Development: Managers can identify skill gaps and provide training
opportunities to enhance employee competencies. This intervention may involve arranging
internal or external training programs, workshops, seminars, or online learning platforms
to enhance knowledge and skills.

4. Team Building Activities: Managers can organize team-building activities to foster

collaboration, improve communication, and enhance team dynamics. These activities may
include team-building exercises, off-site retreats, or workshops that promote trust, respect,
and cooperation among team members.

5. Conflict Resolution: Managers are responsible for resolving conflicts within the
team or between individuals. They can facilitate open communication, mediate disputes,
and find mutually acceptable solutions. This intervention aims to maintain a harmonious
work environment and promote effective collaboration.

6. Change Management: Managers play a crucial role in leading and managing

organizational change initiatives. They communicate the need for chan ge, provide
support during transition periods, address resistance, and help employees adapt to new
processes, systems, or strategies.

7. Rewards and Recognition: Managers can implement reward and recognition programs to
acknowledge and motivate employees. This intervention involves recognizing and
rewarding exceptional performance, providing incentives, or creating a culture of
appreciation and celebration.

8. Policy and Procedure Implementation: Managers ensure that organizational policies,

procedures, and guidelines are effectively communicated and implemented. They play a
role in enforcing policies, addressing policy violations, and maintaining consistency in
adherence to organizational rules and regulations.

9. Employee Engagement: Managers can actively engage employees by fostering a

positive work environment, encouraging participation in decision-making, promoting
open communication, and providing opportunities for growth and development. This
intervention aims to enhance employee satisfaction, motivation, and commitment.

Effective management interventions require strong leadership, communication skills,

and a deep understanding of the organization and its employees. By employing
appropriate interventions, managers can support employee growth, address performance
issues, promote a positive work culture, and drive organizational success.

2.5 EMOTIONS-EMOTIONAL LABOUR-EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE- THEORIES

Emotions are complex psychological and physiological responses that arise in response to
specific events, situations, or stimuli. They play a fundamental role in human experience and can
greatly influence our thoughts, behaviors, and overall well-being. Here are some key aspects of
emotions: 1. Definition and Components: Emotions are subjective experiences characterized
by a combination of physiological arousal, cognitive appraisal, expressive behaviors, and
subjective feelings. They involve a range of mental and physical processes that occur
simultaneously.

2. Types of Emotions: There is a wide range of emotions that humans experience, including
happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust, and more. These emotions can vary in
intensity, duration, and expression

3. Emotional Intelligence: Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize, understand,

manage, and express emotions effectively. It involves being aware of one's own emotions,
understanding others' emotions, and using emotional information to guide thinking and
behavior.

4. Functions of Emotions: Emotions serve several functions. They provide information about
our internal states, help us make decisions, motivate and guide behavior, facilitate social
interactions, and contribute to our overall well-being. Emotions can also serve as signals for
important needs or threats in our environment.

5. Emotional Expression: Emotions are often expressed through facial expressions, body language,
tone of voice, and gestures. These expressions can communicate our feelings to others and
influence how we are perceived and understood.

6. Emotional Regulation: Emotional regulation refers to the processes involved in managing

and modulating emotions. It includes strategies such as reappraisal (changing how we think about
a situation), suppression (inhibiting emotional expression), and seeking social support. Effective
emotional regulation is important for psychological well-being and adaptive functioning.

7. Influence on Behavior and Decision-making: Emotions play a significant role in shaping our
behaviors and decision-making processes. They can influence our attention, memory, judgment,
and problem-solving abilities. For example, feeling fear can trigger a fight-or-flight response,
while feeling happy can enhance creativity and positive interactions.
8. Cultural and Individual Differences: Emotional experiences and expressions can be
influenced by cultural norms, socialization practices, and individual differences. Different
cultures may have varying norms and rules regarding emotional expression and display.
Additionally, individuals may differ in their emotional sensitivity, intensity, and regulation
strategies.

Understanding emotions and their impact is essential in various domains, including psychology,
interpersonal relationships, leadership, and organizational behavior. Emotions can influence
workplace dynamics, job satisfaction, motivation, and employee performance. Therefore,
organizations often focus on fostering emotional intelligence, creating positive emotional climates,
and supporting employees' emotional well-being.

Emotional Labour:

Emotional labor refers to the management and regulation of emotions as part of one's job
responsibilities. It involves consciously modifying one's emotions, expressions, and behavior to
meet the emotional requirements of a particular job or professional role. Emotional labor is
particularly relevant in roles that involve direct interactions with customers, clients, or service
recipients. Here are some key aspects of emotional labor:

1. Surface Acting: Surface acting is a form of emotional labor that involves displaying certain
emotions or expressions without genuinely feeling them. It requires employees to put on a "mask"
and show emotions that are expected or desired in their role, even if they don't authentically feel
those emotions.

2. Deep Acting: Deep acting is another form of emotional labor that involves attempting to
genuinely experience and internalize the emotions that are required for a particular job. It involves
modifying one's internal emotional state to align with the desired emotional display.

3. Emotional Dissonance: Emotional dissonance occurs when there is a mismatch between an

individual's true emotions and the emotions they are expected to display. This can lead to
psychological strain and emotional exhaustion when individuals must suppress their true feelings
and display emotions that are inconsistent with their internal state.

4. Customer Service and Hospitality Industries: Emotional labor is often associated with customer
service, hospitality, and other service-oriented industries. Employees in these sectors are expected
to maintain a positive and friendly demeanor, even when dealing with challenging or difficult
customers.

5. Impact on Employees: Engaging in emotional labor can have both positive and negative effects
on employees. On one hand, effectively managing emotions can lead to customer satisfaction,
positive work relationships, and enhanced job performance. On the other hand, the constant effort
to regulate emotions can be mentally and emotionally draining, leading to burnout, stress, and
reduced well-being.

6. Organizational Policies and Support: Organizations play a role in managing emotional labor by
establishing policies, training programs, and support systems. Providing employees with the
necessary resources, training in emotional regulation techniques, and fostering a supportive work
environment can help mitigate the negative effects of emotional labor.

7. Authenticity and Emotional Authenticity: Emotional labor raises questions about authenticity
in the workplace. Employees may feel pressured to suppress their true emotions and present a
facade, which can impact their sense of authenticity and personal identity.

8. Gender and Emotional Labor: Research suggests that emotional labor is often gendered, with
women being expected to perform more emotional labor than men. This can be seen in professions
such as nursing, teaching, and customer service, where women are often expected to display
nurturing and empathetic emotions.

Understanding emotional labor is important for organizations to ensure the well-being of their
employees and provide appropriate support. Recognizing the emotional demands of specific job
roles, promoting emotional intelligence, and creating a culture that values genuine emotions and
supports employees in managing their emotional labor can contribute to a healthier work
environment.

Emotional Intelligence:

Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
effectively in oneself and others. It involves a set of skills and competencies that enable individuals
to recognize and regulate their own emotions, understand the emotions of others, and use this
emotional information to guide thinking, behavior, and decision-making. Here are key aspects of
emotional intelligence:

1. Self-Awareness: Self-awareness is the foundation of emotional intelligence. It involves

recognizing and understanding one's own emotions, strengths, weaknesses, values, and
motivations. Self-aware individuals have a clear understanding of how their emotions impact their
thoughts, behaviors, and interactions with others.

2. Self-Management: Self-management refers to the ability to regulate and manage one's own
emotions effectively. It involves strategies such as impulse control, emotional resilience, stress
management, and adaptability. Self-managed individuals can handle challenging situations,
maintain composure, and make constructive choices even in the face of adversity.
 3. Social Awareness: Social awareness involves perceiving and understanding the emotions and
needs of others. It includes empathy, the ability to sense and understand others' emotions,
perspectives, and experiences. Socially aware individuals are attuned to social cues, exhibit
sensitivity towards others, and demonstrate a genuine interest in their well-being.

4. Relationship Management: Relationship management is the ability to build and maintain

healthy and positive relationships with others. It involves effective communication, conflict
resolution, teamwork, and influencing others in a positive manner. Individuals with strong
relationship management skills can foster collaboration, inspire and motivate others, and navigate
social dynamics effectively.

5. Emotional Perception and Understanding: Emotional intelligence involves accurately

perceiving and understanding emotions, both in oneself and others. This includes recognizing
facial expressions, body language, tone of voice, and other nonverbal cues that convey emotions.
It also involves understanding the causes and consequences of emotions, and being able to label
and differentiate between different emotional states.

6. Emotional Regulation and Control: Emotional intelligence includes the ability to regulate and
control one's own emotions. This involves managing and expressing emotions in appropriate ways,
adapting emotional responses to different situations, and effectively dealing with stress,
frustration, and other negative emotions. It also involves the ability to delay gratification and resist
impulsive behaviors.

7. Empathy: Empathy is a crucial component of emotional intelligence. It involves understanding

and sharing the emotions of others, and being able to respond with sensitivity andcompassion.
Empathetic individuals can perspective-take, listen actively, and provide support and
understanding to others in times of need.

8. Application in Personal and Professional Life: Emotional intelligence is highly relevant in

personal relationships, leadership roles, and professional settings. It can enhance communication,
collaboration, and decision-making. It is particularly valuable in roles that require managing and
interacting with others, such as leadership, sales, customer service, and team management.

Developing emotional intelligence can lead to numerous benefits, including improved self-
awareness, better interpersonal relationships, enhanced communication skills, increased empathy,
and more effective leadership. It can also contribute to personal well-being, resilience, and overall
success in various areas of life.

Theories Related To Emotional Intelligence

There are several theories related to emotional intelligence that provide different perspectives on
its nature and development. Here are three prominent theories of emotional intelligence:
 1. Ability Model of Emotional Intelligence (Mayer and Salovey): The ability model of
emotional intelligence, developed by Peter Salovey and John Mayer, views emotional intelligence
as a set of mental abilities related to emotions. According to this model, emotional intelligence
involves four interrelated abilities:

a. Perceiving Emotions: The ability to accurately perceive and identify emotions in oneself and
others.

b. Using Emotions: The ability to harness and use emotions to facilitate thinking, problem-solving,
and decision-making.

c. Understanding Emotions: The ability to comprehend the causes, consequences, and

complexities of emotions.

d. Managing Emotions: The ability to regulate and manage one's own emotions and the emotions
of others. The ability model emphasizes the cognitive aspects of emotional intelligence and sees
it as a measurable set of skills that can be developed and improved.

2. Trait Model of Emotional Intelligence (Bar-On): The trait model of emotional intelligence,
developed by Reuven Bar-On, focuses on the personality traits and characteristics associated with
emotional intelligence. Bar-On proposed that emotional intelligence is a collection of emotional
and social skills that contribute to effective functioning in various domains of life. He identified
five main domains of emotional intelligence:

a. Intrapersonal: Self-awareness, self-regard, and self-actualization.

b. Interpersonal: Empathy, social responsibility, and interpersonal relationship skills.

c. Adaptability: Flexibility, problem-solving, and stress tolerance.

d. Stress Management: Emotional resilience, impulse control, and optimism.

e. General Mood: Happiness, contentment, and positive [Link] trait model emphasizes the
personality traits and dispositions that underlie emotional intelligence and views it as a stable
characteristic.

3. Mixed Model of Emotional Intelligence (Goleman): The mixed model of emotional

intelligence, popularized by Daniel Goleman, integrates elements from both the ability and trait
models. Goleman's model emphasizes the importance of both cognitive and personality factors in
emotional intelligence.

According to this model, emotional intelligence includes four main components:

a. Self-awareness: Recognizing and understanding one's own emotions, strengths, and limitations.
b. Self-management: Effectively managing and regulating one's own emotions and impulses.

c. Social awareness: Sensing and understanding the emotions and perspectives of others.

d. Relationship management: Building and maintaining positive relationships, influencing others,

and resolving conflicts.

Goleman's model suggests that emotional intelligence can be learned and developed through
training and practice. These theories provide different perspectives on emotional intelligence,
focusing on different aspects such as abilities, traits, or a combination of both. They contribute to
our understanding of emotional intelligence and provide frameworks for assessing and developing
this important skillset.

2.6 ATTITUDES-CHARACTERISTICS-COMPONENTS-
FORMATION-MEASUREMENT-VALUES

Attitudes are evaluative beliefs, feelings, and tendencies toward objects, people, or events.
They are a significant aspect of human psychology and can influence our thoughts, emotions,
and behaviors.

Here are some key points about attitudes:

1. Definition: Attitudes are a combination of cognitive, affective, and behavioral

components. The cognitive component involves beliefs, thoughts, and evaluations about the
object of the attitude. The affective component refers to the emotional reactions and feelings
associated with the attitude. The behavioral component relates to the behavioral tendencies
and actions that result from the attitude.

2. Formation of Attitudes: Attitudes can be formed through various processes, including

direct experience, socialization, observation, and communication. They can be influenced by
personal values, social norms, cultural factors, and individual differences.

3. Components of Attitude: Attitudes consist of three main components:

a. Cognitive Component: This component involves the beliefs, thoughts, and evaluations one
holds about the object of the attitude. It reflects the knowledge and information individuals
have about the attitude object.

b. Affective Component: The affective component refers to the emotional reactions, feelings,
and likes or dislikes associated with the attitude. It represents the emotional evaluation or
response towards the attitude object.
 c. Behavioral Component: The behavioral component reflects the behavioral tendencies and
actions that are influenced by the attitude. It involves the intentions and actions individuals
are likely to take in relation to the attitude object.

4. Attitude Strength: Attitudes can vary in strength, ranging from weak and ambivalent to
strong and stable. Strong attitudes are more resistant to change and have a greater influence
on behavior.

5. Attitude-Behavior Relationship: Attitudes can influence behavior, but the relationship

between attitudes and behavior is complex. Attitudes do not always predict behavior directly,
as other factors such as situational constraints, social norms, and personal beliefs can also
come into play.

6. Attitude Change: Attitudes can change over time due to various factors. Persuasion, social
influence, personal experiences, and exposure to new information can all contribute to attitude
change. Attitude change processes can involve cognitive processes (such as changing beliefs)
and affective processes (such as altering emotional reactions).

7. Attitudes in the Workplace: Attitudes have significant implications in the workplace .

Employee attitudes toward their work, colleagues, and organization can impact job
satisfaction, motivation, and performance. Positive attitudes, such as job satisfaction and
organizational commitment, are generally desirable for individual and organizati onal success

Understanding attitudes is crucial for marketers, advertisers, social psychologists, and

organizations aiming to influence behavior, shape perceptions, and create positive
environments. By recognizing the components and formation processes of attitudes,
professionals can develop effective strategies for attitude change, persuasion, and promoting
positive attitudes in various contexts.

Characteristics

Attitudes, as evaluative beliefs and feelings, possess several key characteristics that shape
their nature and influence. Here are some important characteristics of attitudes:

1. Evaluative Nature: Attitudes involve evaluations and judgments. They reflect a person's
positive or negative assessment of an object, person, idea, or event. Attitudes can range from
favorable (liking, approval) to unfavorable (disliking, disapproval).

2. Learned and Acquired: Attitudes are not innate; rather, they are learned through
experiences, socialization, and interactions with others. They can be shaped by various
factors, including family upbringing, cultural influences, education, and social norms.
3. Enduring and Relatively Stable: Attitudes tend to be relatively stable and enduring over
time. They are not easily changed or modified, and they can persist even in the face of new
information or experiences. However, attitudes can be subject to change through certain
processes, such as persuasive communication or personal experiences.

4. Context-Specific: Attitudes can be context-specific, meaning they may vary depending on

the situation or context in which they are assessed. For example, an individual may have
different attitudes toward work, family, politics, or specific products or brands.

5. Hierarchical Structure: Attitudes can have a hierarchical structure, with broader attitudes
representing general evaluations and more specific attitudes pertaining to specific objects or
issues. For instance, a person may have a general attitude toward environmental conservation,
but specific attitudes toward recycling, renewable energy, or reducing carbon emissions.

6. Subjective Experience: Attitudes are subjective experiences and are influenced by an

individual's beliefs, values, emotions, and personal experiences. They can vary among
individuals based on their unique perspectives and interpretations.

7. Influence on Behavior: While attitudes may not always directly predict behavior, they can
have a significant influence on behavior. Attitudes can shape the way individuals perceive
and respond to situations, guide their decision-making processes, and influence their actions
and choices.

8. Attitude-Behavior Consistency: There is generally a desire for consistency between

attitudes and behavior. People tend to seek alignment between what they believe and how
they act, as inconsistency can create cognitive dissonance and discomfort.

9. Accessibility and Strength: Attitudes can vary in accessibility and strength. Highly
accessible attitudes are easily activated and readily come to mind when relevant situations
arise. Attitude strength refers to the degree of certainty, stability, and importance associated
with an attitude. Strong attitudes are more resistant to change and more likely to impact
behavior.

Understanding the characteristics of attitudes is important in various fields, including

psychology, marketing, social sciences, and organizational behavior. Recognizing the
stability, context-dependence, and influence of attitudes can inform strategies for attitude
change, behavior prediction, persuasion, and creating positive attitudes in individuals and
groups.
Components:

Attitudes consist of three main components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral. These
components work together to form an individual's overall attitude toward an object, person,
idea, or event. Here's a breakdown of each component:

1. Cognitive Component: The cognitive component of attitudes involves the beliefs, thoughts,
and knowledge that an individual holds about the object of the attitude. It includes the
information and perceptions that shape their understanding and evaluation of the object. For
example, if someone holds a positive attitude toward environmental conservation, their
cognitive component may include beliefs such as "protecting the environment is important"
or "reducing carbon emissions is necessary."

2. Affective Component: The affective component refers to the emotional reactions, feelings,
and evaluations associated with the attitude. It involves the individual's emotional response
toward the object, person, idea, or event. This component reflects the individual's likes,
dislikes, preferences, and emotional associations related to the attitude. For example, someone
with a positive attitude toward a particular brand may experience emotions such as happiness,
trust, or excitement when interacting with that brand.

3. Behavioral Component: The behavioral component reflects the behavioral tendencies or

actions that result from the attitude. It refers to how the attitude influences an individual's
actual behavior and actions toward the object. However, it's important to note that the link
between attitudes and behavior is not always straightforward and can be influenced by various
factors. For example, someone with a positive attitude toward healthy eating may be more
likely to engage in behaviors such as choosing nutritious food options, exercising regularly,
or seeking health-related information.

These components are interrelated and together form an individual's attitude. They contribute
to the overall evaluation and response individuals have toward a particular object, person,
idea, or event. The cognitive component provides the informational basis, the affective
component encompasses the emotional response, and the behavioral component relates to the
actions and behavioral tendencies associated with the attitude. Understanding these
components helps in comprehending how attitudes are formed, how they influence behavior,
and how they can be influenced or changed through various strategies and interventions.

Formation

Attitudes are formed through a variety of processes and influences. Here are some common
factors that contribute to the formation of attitudes:
 1. Direct Experience: Personal experiences play a significant role in shaping attitudes. When
individuals have direct, firsthand experiences with an object, person, idea, or event, their
attitudes can be influenced by the positive or negative outcomes and emotions associated with
that experience. For example, if someone has a positive experience with a particular brand,
they may develop a favorable attitude toward it.

2. Socialization: Attitudes are shaped through the process of socialization, which invo lves
learning and adopting attitudes from family, friends, peers, and other influential groups.
During childhood and adolescence, individuals are exposed to the attitudes of significant
others, and these attitudes can become internalized and influence their own beliefs and values.

3. Observational Learning: Attitudes can be acquired through observing the behavior and
attitudes of others. Individuals learn from role models, influential figures, and media
representations, and they may adopt similar attitudes based on the influence of these observed
behaviors.

4. Cultural and Social Norms: Cultural and societal norms play a role in shaping attitudes.
Attitudes can be influenced by the values, beliefs, customs, and norms of the culture or society
in which individuals are raised. These norms provide a framework for evaluating and forming
attitudes toward various objects or behaviors.

5. Media and Information Sources: Attitudes can be influenced by the media, including
television, movies, news outlets, and social media platforms. Media exposure can shape
perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes by providing information, presenting certain perspectives,
and promoting specific values or ideologies.

6. Education and Learning: Attitudes can be influenced through formal education, as

individuals are exposed to different ideas, perspectives, and knowledge. Educational
institutions, teachers, and curriculum can shape attitudes by presenting information,
encouraging critical thinking, and promoting certain values or ideologies.

7. Personality and Individual Differences: Individual differences, such as personality traits,

values, and beliefs, can also influence the formation of attitudes. People with certain
personality traits may be more inclined to adopt certain attitudes, while personal values and
beliefs can shape the evaluation and acceptance of different attitudes.

It's important to note that attitudes can be fluid and subject to change. They can be influenced
by new information, persuasive communication, personal growth, and shifts in social and
cultural contexts. Understanding the processes and influences that contribute to attitude
formation helps explain the complexity and variability of attitudes in individuals and groups.
Measurement

Attitudes can be measured using various methods and scales to assess the cognitive, affective,
and behavioral components.

Here are some commonly used approaches for measuring attitudes:

1. Self-Report Questionnaires: Self-report questionnaires are a popular method for measuring

attitudes. These questionnaires consist of a series of items or statements related to the attitude
being assessed. Respondents indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with each item
on a rating scale (e.g., Likert scale) or by selecting a response option. The responses are then
aggregated to provide an overall score or measure of the attitude.

2. Semantic Differential Scale: The semantic differential scale is a type of rating scale that
measures attitudes based on bipolar adjective pairs. Respondents rate their perception or
evaluation of an object, person, or event on a continuum between two opposing adjectives.
For example, respondents may rate their attitude toward a brand on a scale ranging from
"good" to "bad" or from "favorable" to "unfavorable."

3. Implicit Measures: Implicit measures are designed to capture attitudes that may be
unconscious or difficult to self-report. These measures assess automatic or spontaneous
associations individuals have with specific objects or concepts. Implicit measures include
tasks such as the Implicit Association Test (IAT) or the affective priming task, which measure
the strength and direction of implicit associations between concepts and evaluative responses.

4. Observational Measures: Attitudes can also be assessed through observation of behavior.

This involves observing individuals' actions, non-verbal cues, or expressions in specific
situations related to the attitude of interest. For example, observing whether individuals
engage in positive or negative behaviors or expressions when exposed to a particular stimulus
can provide insights into their attitude.

5. Physiological Measures: Physiological measures, such as heart rate, skin conductance, or

brain activity, can be used to assess emotional responses associated with attitudes. These
measures capture physiological reactions that may reflect underlying emotional evaluations
and arousal related to the attitude.

6. Content Analysis: Content analysis involves systematically analyzing written or verbal

content, such as text, speeches, social media posts, or interviews, to identify and assess
attitudes expressed within the content. It allows for the examination of attitudes within natural
language and communication.
 It's important to choose a measurement method that aligns with the specific research or
assessment goals and the nature of the attitude being measured. Combining multiple methods
and measures can provide a more comprehensive understanding of attitudes and their
underlying components. Additionally, it's essential to consider the validity and reliability of
the chosen measures to ensure accurate and meaningful measurement of attitudes.

Values

Values are enduring beliefs and principles that guide individuals' attitudes, behaviors, and
decision-making. They represent what individuals consider important and desirable in life,
serving as a framework for their judgments and actions. Here are some key points about
values:

1. Definition: Values are deeply held beliefs and ideals that influence individuals' perceptions,
priorities, and choices. They reflect what individuals consider morally and ethically right or
wrong, and they serve as a foundation for personal and societal norms.

2. Personal and Cultural: Values can be personal, representing an individual's unique set of
beliefs and priorities. They can also be cultural, reflecting the values shared by a particular
group, community, or society. Cultural values are influenced by factors such as history,
traditions, social norms, and religious or philosophical beliefs.

3. Hierarchy and Importance: Values can vary in terms of importance and hierarchy. Some
values may hold more significance than others, and individuals prioritize and make decisions
based on their value system. Values provide a guide for individuals in setting goals, making
choices, and evaluating their actions and behaviors.

4. Stability and Change: Values tend to be relatively stable and resistant to change. They are
often formed early in life through socialization and personal experiences. However, valu es
can evolve and change over time due to personal growth, exposure to new perspectives, or
shifts in societal values.

5. Types of Values: There are various types of values that individuals may hold, including:

a. Moral Values: Moral values relate to ethical principles and concepts of right and wrong.
They guide individuals' behaviors and judgments in terms of fairness, honesty, justice,
integrity, and respect for others.

b. Social Values: Social values pertain to individuals' beliefs about soci al relationships,
cooperation, community, and collective well-being. These values may include empathy,
compassion, inclusivity, and social responsibility.
c. Achievement Values: Achievement values focus on personal success, ambition,
competence, and the pursuit of excellence. They reflect individuals' drive for accomplishment
and recognition.

d. Family Values: Family values center around the importance of family, kinship, and the
well-being of loved ones. These values emphasize concepts such as loyalty, care, support, and
responsibility toward family members.

e. Cultural Values: Cultural values are shared by members of a particular culture or society.
They shape norms, traditions, and social behaviors within that culture. Cultural values can
vary across different societies and may include concepts such as collectivism, individualism,
time orientation, or hierarchy.

Understanding values is essential in psychology, sociology, ethics, and organizational

behavior. Values provide insights into individuals' motivations, decision-making processes,
and behavior in various contexts. Recognizing and respecting different value systems is
crucial for promoting understanding, diversity, and ethical behavior in personal, professional,
and societal settings
2.7 PERCEPTION-IMPORTANCE-FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION

Perception refers to the process by which individuals interpret and make sense of the sensory
information they receive from their environment. It involves organizing, selecting, and
interpreting sensory stimuli to create a meaningful understanding of the world around us. Here
are some key points about perceptions:

1. Sensory Input: Perception begins with sensory input, which includes information received
through our senses such as sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell. Our senses gather raw data
from the environment, which serves as the foundation for perception.

2. Selective Attention: Selective attention is the process of focusing on specific sensory

inputs while filtering out irrelevant or less important information. People selectively attend
to stimuli based on their interests, goals, expectations, and the salience or relevance of the
stimuli.

3. Organization: Once sensory inputs are selected, they are organized and grouped in
meaningful ways. The brain organizes sensory information based on certain principles, such
as proximity (grouping objects that are close together), similarity (grouping objects that are
similar in appearance), and continuity (perceiving objects as continuous and smooth rather
than fragmented).

4. Interpretation: After organizing the sensory information, individuals interpret and make
sense of it based on their previous knowledge, experiences, beliefs, and
[Link] involves assigning meaning to the sensory inputs and
understanding their significance in a given context.

5. Perceptual Biases: Perceptions can be influenced by various biases and cognitive

processes. These biases include confirmation bias (tendency to interpret information in a way
that confirms existing beliefs), stereotypes (categorizing individuals based on preconceived
notions), and perceptual defense (tendency to ignore or distort information that is threatening
or uncomfortable).

6. Subjectivity: Perception is subjective and varies from person to person. Individuals may
have different interpretations and experiences of the same sensory inputs based on their
unique perspectives, cultural backgrounds, and cognitive processes.

7. Perceptual Constancy: Perceptual constancy refers to the tendency to perceive objects as

stable and consistent, even when sensory information changes. For example, we perceive the
size, shape, and color of an object as constant, even when viewed from different angles or
under different lighting conditions.

8. Perceptual Errors: Perception is not always accurate and can be prone to errors. Perceptual
errors can occur due to illusions (misinterpretation of sensory information), perceptual
distortions (exaggeration or underestimation of certain features), or perceptual gaps (missing
or misinterpreting information due to limited sensory inputs).

Understanding perceptions is crucial in fields such as psychology, marketing, communication,

and organizational behavior. Recognizing the subjectivity and biases in perception helps in
understanding individuals' cognitive processes, decision-making, and interactions with their
environment. It also emphasizes the importance of effective communication, considering
diverse perspectives, and minimizing perceptual biases in various contexts.

Importance

Perceptions play a crucial role in shaping our understanding of the world and influencing our
thoughts, behaviors, and decision-making. Here are some key reasons why perceptions are
important:

1. Sensemaking: Perceptions help us make sense of the vast amount of information we

encounter in our daily lives. They allow us to organize and interpret sensory inputs, providing
structure and meaning to our experiences. Without perceptions, our sensory inputs would be
overwhelming and confusing.

2. Decision-Making: Perceptions greatly influence our decision-making processes. How we

perceive a situation or a problem affects how we evaluate options, assess risks and benefits,
and make choices. Different perceptions can lead to different decisions, highlighting the
importance of understanding and managing perceptions in various contexts.

3. Interpersonal Relationships: Perceptions impact our interactions and relationships with

others. How we perceive others and how they perceive us shapes our social interactions,
communication styles, and interpersonal [Link] or misunderstandings can
lead to conflicts, while accurate perceptions contribute to empathy, understanding, and
effective relationships.

4. Work and Organizational Behavior: In the context of organizations, perceptions a re

crucial for understanding employee behavior, motivation, and job satisfaction. How
employees perceive their work environment, colleagues, supervisors, and organizational
culture influences their attitudes, engagement, and performance. Organizational lea ders need
to be aware of and manage perceptions to create a positive and productive work environment.

5. Customer Perception: Perceptions significantly impact consumers' purchasing decisions

and brand choices. How consumers perceive a product, brand, or company influences their
attitudes, preferences, and purchase behavior. Organizations need to manage and shape
positive perceptions through marketing, branding, and customer experience strategies.

6. Bias and Stereotypes: Perceptions can be subject to biases and stereotypes, which can have
significant societal implications. Biased perceptions can lead to discrimination, prejudice, and
unfair treatment of individuals or groups. Understanding and challenging these biases is
essential for promoting inclusivity, equality, and social justice.
 7. Communication and Influence: Perceptions shape how we interpret and respond to
communication from others. Effective communication requires an understanding of how
others perceive messages, as well as the ability to convey information in a way that aligns
with their perceptions and understanding. Persuasion and influence are also influenced by
perceptions, as different individuals may respond differently to the same message based on
their perceptions.

By recognizing the importance of perceptions, we can strive for more accurate and open -
minded interpretations of the world. This understanding enables better decision -making,
effective communication, improved relationships, and a more inclusive and harmon ious
society.

Factors Influencing Perception

Perception is influenced by various factors that shape how individuals interpret and make
sense of sensory information. These factors can be broadly categorized into three main
groups:

1. Perceiver-related factors: These factors are related to the characteristics and attributes of
the individual perceiving the stimuli.

a. Past experiences: Previous experiences and personal history shape perceptions. Our past
encounters and interactions with similar stimuli or situations can influence how we interpret
and understand new sensory inputs.

b. Beliefs and expectations: Our beliefs, values, and expectations influence our perceptions.
We tend to interpret information in a way that aligns with our existing belief s and
expectations, leading to selective attention and interpretation of stimuli.

c. Motivation and interests: Our motivation and interests affect what we pay attention to and
how we interpret sensory information. We are more likely to notice and proc ess stimuli that
are personally relevant or that align with our goals and interests. d. Attitudes and emotions:
Attitudes and emotions can color our perceptions. Positive or negative attitudes and emotions
toward a person, object, or situation can bias our interpretations and evaluations.

2. Stimulus-related factors: These factors pertain to the characteristics of the stimuli being
perceived.

a. Intensity and salience: Highly intense or salient stimuli tend to capture our attention and
have a stronger impact on perception. These stimuli stand out from their surroundings and are
more likely to be noticed and interpreted.

b. Contrast: Perceptions are influenced by the contrast between stimuli. When two stimuli are
presented together, the differences or similarities between them can affect how we perceive
and interpret each stimulus.
c. Size, shape, and color: The physical attributes of stimuli, such as their size, shape, and
color, can influence how we perceive and categorize them. These attributes contribute to the
organization and interpretation of sensory inputs.

3. Situational factors: These factors refer to the context or environment in which perception
occurs.

a. Social and cultural factors: Perceptions are shaped by social and cultural norms, values,
and expectations. Cultural background, social norms, and group influences can affect how
individuals interpret and evaluate stimuli.

b. Time pressure: Time constraints and the urgency of a situation can impact perception.
When time is limited, individuals may rely on quick judgments and heuristics to make sense
of sensory inputs.

c. Environmental context: The physical and social environment in which perception occurs
can influence how stimuli are perceived. The presence of other people, noise, distractions,
and the overall context can shape the interpretation of sensory information.

It's important to note that these factors interact and influence each other, making perception
a complex and dynamic process. Different individuals may perceive the same stimuli
differently due to variations in these influencing factors. Understanding the factors that shape
perception can help us appreciate the diversity of interpretations and improve our
communication and understanding of others

Interpersonal Perception
Interpersonal perception refers to the process of perceiving and understanding others in social
interactions. It involves forming impressions, attributing traits and characteristics, and
making judgments about other people based on available information. Here are some key
aspects of interpersonal perception:

1. Impressions and Attribution: Interpersonal perception begins with forming initial

impressions of others. We observe and interpret various cues such as appearance, behavior,
nonverbal communication, and verbal communication to develop our first impressions.
Attribution is the process of assigning causes or explanations to observed behaviors, which
helps us make sense of others' actions and traits.

2. Stereotypes and Generalizations: Interpersonal perception can be influenced by stereotypes

and generalizations, which are preconceived beliefs or assumptions about certain groups of
people. Stereotypes can lead to biases and inaccuracies in perception, as they may
oversimplify and generalize individuals based on their social group membership.

3. Nonverbal Communication: Nonverbal cues play a significant role in interpersonal

perception. Facial expressions, body language, gestures, eye contact, and tone of voice can
convey emotions, attitudes, and intentions. Interpreting and responding to nonve rbal cues is
crucial for accurately perceiving others' feelings and intentions.

4. Attribution Theory: Attribution theory explains how individuals attribute causes to

behavior. It suggests that people make internal or external attributions based on wheth er they
perceive behavior to be caused by personal characteristics or situational factors. Attribution
biases, such as the fundamental attribution error (overemphasizing dispositional factors) or
the self-serving bias (attributing success to internal factors and failure to external factors),
can influence interpersonal perception.

5. Perceptual Accuracy: Interpersonal perception is subject to various biases and limitations.

Perceptual accuracy refers to the extent to which our perceptions align with reality. Factors
such as cognitive biases, limited information, cultural differences, and personal biases can
lead to inaccuracies in our perceptions of others.

6. Empathy and Perspective-Taking: Empathy is the ability to understand and share the
feelings of others. It involves perceiving others' emotions, perspectives, and experiences.
Perspective-taking is an important component of interpersonal perception, as it allows us to
see situations from others' points of view and consider their thoughts and feelings .

7. Impression Management: Impression management refers to the conscious or subconscious

efforts individuals make to influence how others perceive them. People may engage in
impression management strategies to present themselves in a favorable light, co ntrol their
image, and shape others' perceptions of them.

8. Cultural and Individual Differences: Interpersonal perception can be influenced by

cultural norms, values, and individual differences. Different cultures may have varying norms
for behavior, communication styles, and social cues, which can impact how individuals
perceive and interpret others' actions. Additionally, individual differences such as personality
traits, past experiences and cognitive processes can also shape interpersonal perception.

Understanding interpersonal perception is crucial for effective communication, building

relationships, and fostering empathy. Recognizing the biases and limitations in perception can
help promote open-mindedness, cultural sensitivity, and accurate understanding of others in
social interactions.

2.8 IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT

Impression management refers to the conscious or subconscious efforts individuals make to
shape or control the impressions others have of them. It involves carefully selecting and
presenting oneself in a way that influences how others perceive and evaluate them. Here are
some key points about impression management:

1. Self-Presentation: Impression management is a form of self-presentation, where individuals

strategically present themselves to create a desired image or impression. This can include
controlling one's appearance, behavior, communication style, and other aspects of how one
presents oneself to others.

2. Image Projection: The goal of impression management is to project a speci fic image or
impression that aligns with one's goals, values, and social expectations. This can involve
emphasizing certain qualities, skills, achievements, or attributes while downplaying or hiding
others that may be less desirable or relevant to the situation.

3. Situational Adaptation: Impression management may vary depending on the specific social
context or situation. Individuals may adapt their self-presentation strategies to fit different
situations, social roles, or the expectations of different audiences.

4. Techniques and Strategies: There are various techniques and strategies employed in
impression management, including:

- Self-promotion: Highlighting one's positive qualities, achievements, and skills to create

a favorable impression.

- Ingratiation: Using flattery, compliments, or acts of kindness to gain favor or approval

from others.

- Suppression: Suppressing or hiding certain emotions, opinions, or aspects of oneself to

avoid negative judgments or conflicts.

- Enhancement: Exaggerating or magnifying one's positive attributes or accomplishments.

- Conformity: Adjusting one's behavior or opinions to match the expectations or norms of a

particular group or situation.

- Authenticity: Presenting oneself genuinely and honestly, while still being mindful of the
desired impression.

5. Nonverbal and Verbal Communication: Impression management involves both nonverbal

and verbal communication. Nonverbal cues such as body language, facial expressions, eye
contact, and tone of voice can influence how others perceive and interpret someone's
intentions and authenticity. Verbal communication, including the language used, the topics
discussed, and the manner of speech, can also shape the impression created.

6. Social Media and Online Presence: In today's digital age, impression management extends
to online platforms and social media. Individuals often curate their online presence, carefully
selecting and presenting content that aligns with the desired image or impression they want
to project to their online connections.

7. Ethical Considerations: While impression management is a common social phenomenon,

there can be ethical implications. Presenting a false or deceptive image to manipulate others'
perceptions or gain undue advantage is considered unethical. Balancing authenticity, honesty,
and ethical considerations with the desire to create a positive impression is important.

Impression management is a natural aspect of human interaction and is influenced by social

norms, cultural expectations, and individual motivations. It plays a role in various domains,
including personal relationships, professional settings, job interviews, and public speaking.
Understanding impression management can help individuals navigate social interactions,
build relationships, and effectively communicate their desired image or message to others.
2.9 MOTIVATION-IMPORTANCE-TYPES-EFFECTS ON WORK BEHAVIOUR

The word motivation is derived from the Latin word which means ‘to move’. Motivation
is a psychological phenomenon which generates within an individual an urge to act in a
certain manner. If an individual has some unfulfilled need, he will always be motivated to
work more in order to satisfy the same. The behaviour of such individual will always be
directed towards achievement of his needs. The process of motivation has three key
elements viz: Intensity, direction and persistence. An individual’s motivation towards his
goal is explained by his intensity, direction and persistence of efforts towards his goal. The
following equation can describe this phenomenon.

Motivation=Intensity*Direction*Persistence of efforts

 Intensity is how strongly we put efforts to achieve our goal.

 Direction in which efforts of an individual are directed determine how well an
individual will perform. Efforts of an individual should always be directed in a
direction which is beneficial.
 Persistence is for how long an individual keep on working hard to achieve his goals.
The above discussion explains that the process of motivation starts with a need deficiency,
which activates behaviour of an individual towards achievement of the goal or need.
Following definitions of motivation will further elaborate the process of motivation:

 According to Dublin, “Motivation is the complex of forces starting and keeping

a person at work in an organisation.”

 According to Berelson and Steiner, “A Motivation is an inner state that energizes,

activates or moves and directs or channels behaviour goals”.

From the above definitions, following inferences about the motivation can be drawn:

 Motivation is inner feeling which energizes a person to work more.

 Unfulfilled needs or desires of an individual prompt him to do a particular task.
 A person always strives to fulfill his unsatisfied needs.
 Importance of Motivation:
1. Motivation helps to change from negative attitude to positive attitude. Without motivation the
employees try to perform minimum activities in the organization. But the motivation fills in the
desire to perform to their maximum level. All the resources of the organization are of no use unless
and until the employees use these resources. The motivated employees make best use of the
resources.
2. Motivation improves performance level of employees. The motivation improves the efficiency level
of employees which means the employees start performing the job to the best of their ability with
minimum wastage of time and resources because motivated employees always go for best
utilization of resources. The motivation bridges the gap between the ability to work and willingness
always improves efficiency.
3. Help in achieving the organizational goals. The motivated employees always try to achieve the
organizational goal and contribute their best efforts for the realization of organizational goal as they
know with the achievement of organizational goal only they can achieve their personal goal. All the
employees contribute their efforts in one direction of accomplishment of goal.
4. Motivation creates supportive work environment. In motivation the relations between superior and
subordinates are always improved. When the employees get their need satisfied or get the
recognition and respect in the organization then they always offer a supportive hand to superiors.
There is more co-operation and co-ordination in the organization and all the employees work with
the team spirit.
5. Motivation helps the managers to introduce changes. The motivated employees show less resistance
in accepting the changes according to changes in the business environment because they know if the
changes are not implements in the organization, not only the organization will lose by this but the
employees also will find it difficult to get their needs fulfilled. Motivated employees are always
supportive and co-operative in accepting changes in the organization.
6. Reduction in Employee Turnover. The motivation creates confidence in the employees to get their
need satisfied in the organization itself. They always select the alternative to remain in the
organization and increase their earning rather than leaving the organization and increasing their
earnings. With motivation employee turnovers are less because the satisfied employees never leave
the job.

Types of Motivation:

1. Achievement Motivation: It is the drive to pursue and attain goals. An individual with achievement
motivation wishes to achieve objectives and advance up on the ladder of success. Here,
accomplishment is important for its own shake and not for the rewards that accompany it. It is
similar to ‘Kaizen’ approach of Japanese Management.
2. Affiliation Motivation: It is a drive to relate to people on a social basis. Persons with affiliation
motivation perform work better when they are complimented for their favorable attitudes and co-
operation.
3. Competence Motivation: It is the drive to be good at something, allowing the individual to perform
high quality work. Competence motivated people seek job mastery, take pride in developing and
using their problem-solving skills and strive to be creative when confronted with obstacles. They
learn from their experience.
4. Power Motivation: It is the drive to influence people and change situations. Power motivated
people wish to create an impact on their organization and are willing to take risks to do so.
5. Attitude Motivation: Attitude motivation is how people think and feel. It is their self confidence,
their belief in themselves, their attitude to life. It is how they feel about the future and how they
react to the past.
6. Incentive Motivation: It is where a person or a team reaps a reward from an activity. It is “You do
this and you get that”, attitude. It is the types of awards and prizes that drive people to work a little
harder.
7. Fear Motivation: Fear motivation coercion’s a person to act against will. It is instantaneous and gets
the job done quickly. It is helpful in the short run.

Motivation Theory in Organizational Behaviour:

Motivation Theory in Organizational Behaviour and see how different motivators affect our
performance in the workplace: –
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: – Abraham Maslow, an American psychologist,
proposed a hierarchy of needs in his paper, A Theory of Human Motivation. Maslow said that
people are motivated when their needs are met. Once our basic needs and wants are met, we
are motivated to do more. For example, if you are someone who values a good work-life balance
and your organization offers you a part-time opportunity, you will happily accept the offer and
fulfil your responsibilities to the best of your abilities.
A. Physiological Needs: – Physiological needs are considered as the most basic needs of human
beings. These are the needs that are very important for our existence. Examples of
physiological needs are food, shelter, warmth, health, homeostasis and water.
B. Security Needs: – Once the basic needs of food, shelter, water etc. are met, there is an
innate desire to move to the next level. The next level is known as security requirements. The
primary concern of the individual here is related to safety. Safety and security can be in
relation to many things such as a stable source of income which provides financial security,
personal protection from any kind of unnatural events, animal attacks and emotional security
and physical security which is security for health. E.g. freedom, protection and no pain.
C. Social Needs (also called love and related needs): – This is the third level in the need
hierarchy theory. This is the stage where a person seeks acceptance from others in the form
of love, belongingness after fulfilling his physical needs as well as security needs. At this stage
human behaviour is driven by emotions and there is a strong need to make emotional
connections. E.g. love, friendship and involvement in social activities.
D. Esteem Needs: – It is considered as the fourth level of hierarchy of needs theory. It deals
with the need of the individual to be recognized in the society. It is related to getting
recognition, self-respect in the society. The need for recognition and acceptance arises when
a person has satisfied the need for love and belonging. E.g. self-confidence, recognition and
appreciation.
E. Self-Actualized Needs: – This is the last level of the theory of hierarchy of needs proposed by
Maslow. This is the highest level of needs and is known as the need for self-actualization. It is
concerned with the need of an individual to achieve or realize the full potential of one’s own
potential. At this stage, all individuals strive to be the best version of themselves. In other
words, self-realization is a journey of personal growth and development. E.g. becoming the
very best you can be.
2. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory: – Frederick Herzberg, an American psychologist
who became an influential figure in business management, introduced the two-factor theory,
also known as the motivational-hygiene theory. This theory consists of two parts- the hygiene
factor and the motivation factor. Hygiene factors such as working conditions, pay and job security
ensure that employees are satisfied. Motivational factors, such as recognition, responsibility and
opportunities for growth, ensure that people are encouraged to improve their performance.
Herzberg believed that organizations must strive to maintain a healthy balance between the two
in order to be successful.

3. McClelland’s Theory of Needs: – David Clarence McClelland, an American

psychologist, proposed three motivational drivers that influence our life experiences. The first
achievement is required. He said that people with a high need for achievement pursue objectives
that hold them accountable. They want immediate acknowledgment of their efforts. People with
the second type of motivation need are motivated by the need for affiliation, the social
relationships they form, and the positive interactions between them. They thrive in social
situations and make best use of interpersonal skills. The third type of people – those in need of
power – want roles that give them authority and exercise their influence over others.
A. Need For Achievement: – As the name suggests there is an urge to achieve something in
what you do. If you are a lawyer then the case needs to be won and recognized, if you are a
painter then you want your painting to be famous. It is this need which drives a person to
work and even struggle for the purpose which he wants to achieve.
B. Need For Power: – The need for power is the desire within a person to have control and
authority over another person and to influence and change their decisions according to their
needs or desires. The need to increase their self-esteem and prestige drives these people and
they want their thoughts and ideas to be accepted and applied to the thoughts and ideas of
others.
C. Need for Affiliation: – The need for affiliation is an individual’s urge to have interpersonal
and social connections with others or a particular group of people. They want to work in
groups by forming friendly and lasting relationships and aspire to be liked by others. They
prefer to cooperate with others to compete with them and usually avoid high-risk situations
and uncertainty.

The Role Of Motivation In Organizations:

The role of a manager or a team leader isn’t easy. Not only do they shoulder the responsibility of the
entire team, but are also required to give them direction. Motivation is the most effective way to
influence job satisfaction at the workplace. Here are some instances highlighting the importance of
motivation in organizational behavior.

 Increases Productivity:

The role of motivation is to understand someone’s needs and help them find the best way to
utilize their true potential; a motivated employee will be willing to put more effort into their
work.

 Ensures Loyal Workforce:

Motivation ensures that employees are loyal to the organization. This, in turn, reduces
turnover rates and helps to retain the best of the workforce.
  Improves Organizational Efficiency:

When people remain engaged in their professional roles and are happy about the outcomes,
they’re more likely to fulfill targets with greater enthusiasm.

Going Beyond Higher Salary:

Many organizations are under the impression that a higher salary package or monetary perks are the
only way to engage employees and boost their morale. While monetary incentives are a good
motivator, they aren’t the most viable in the long-run. Here are a few types of non-monetary
incentives that can improve motivation in your team:

 Promotion Opportunities, To Assure Others That There Are Avenues For Growth And
Development In Addition To Job Satisfaction.
 Job Enrichment, Where You Delegate Responsibilities To Others And Show Them That You
Trust Them To Hold The Fort.
 Feedback, Where You Provide Employees With A Constructive Review Of Their Performance
And Provide Them With Opportunities To Improve Their Abilities.