EAE 2202 Fundamental Aerodynamics
Basic concepts: theory of continuity, momentum theory, Bernoulli’s law, energy
equation.
CONTINUITY EQUATION
The equation based on the principle of conservation of mass is called continuity
equation. Thus for a fluid flowing through the pipe or stream tube at all the cross-
section, the quantity of fluid per second is constant.
Consider two cross-sections of a pipe as shown in Fig. 2.1.
According to law of conservation of mass, Rate of flow at section 1-1 = Rate of
flow at section 2-2
(1)
Equation (1) is applicable to the compressible flow as well as incompressible flow
of fluids and is called Continuity Equation. If the fluid is incompressible, then
and continuity equation (1) reduces to
Example 1
A 30 cm diameter pipe, conveying water, branches into two pipes of diameters 20
cm and 15 cm respectively. If the average velocity in the 30 cm diameter pipe is
2.5 m/s, find the discharge in this pipe. Also determine the velocity in 15 cm pipe
if the average velocity in 20 cm diameter pipe is 2 m/s.
CONTINUITY EQUATION IN THREE-DIMENSIONS
Consider a fluid element of lengths dx, dy and dz in the direction of x, y and z. Let
u, v and w are the inlet velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively.
Mass of fluid entering the face ABCD per second
Since the mass is neither created nor destroyed in the fluid element, the net
increase of mass per unit time in the fluid element must be equal to the rate of
increase of mass of fluid in the element. But mass of fluid in the element is
Equation ( *) is the continuity equation in cartesian co-ordinates in its most
general form. This equation is applicable to :
(i) Steady and unsteady flow,
(ii) Uniform and non-uniform flow, and
(iii) Compressible and incompressible fluids.
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
Let Vis the resultant velocity at any point in a fluid flow. Let u, v and w are its
component in x, y and z directions. The velocity components are functions of
space-co-ordinates and time. Mathematically, the velocity components are given as
Local Acceleration and Convective Acceleration.
Local acceleration is defined as the rate of increase of velocity with respect to time
at a given point in a flow field. In the equation given
Convective acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity due to the
change of position of fluid particles in a fluid flow.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
According to Newton's second law of motion, the net force Fx acting on a fluid
element in the direction of x is equal to mass m of the fluid element multiplied by
the acceleration ax in the x-direction. Thus mathematically,
Thus in equation ( ), the net force
EULER'S EQUATION OF MOTION
This is equation of motion in which the forces due to gravity and pressure are taken
into consideration. It is derived by considering the motion of a fluid element along a
stream-line as: Consider a stream-line in which flow is taking place ins-direction as
shown in Fig. below. Consider a cylindrical element of cross-section dA and length
ds.
The forces acting on the cylindrical element are:
Let (theta) is the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of the
weight of element. The resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of s must
be equal to the mass of fluid element x acceleration in the directions.
BERNOULLI'S EQUATION FROM EULER'S EQUATION
Assumptions
The following are the assumptions made in the derivation of Bernoulli's equation:
(i) The fluid is ideal, i.e., viscosity is zero (ii) The flow is steady
(iii) The flow is incompressible (iv) The flow is irrotational.
BERNOULLI'S EQUATION FOR REAL FLUID
The Bernoulli's equation was derived on the assumption that fluid is inviscid (non-
viscous) and therefore frictionless. But all the real fluids are viscous and hence offer
resistance to flow. Thus there are always some losses in fluid flows and hence in the
application of Bernoulli's equation, these losses have to be taken into consideration.
Thus the Bernoulli's equation for real fluids between points 1 and 2 is given as
where hL is loss of energy between points 1 and 2.
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1268 Fluid Mechanics
Z8 = 4.0 m
Q 0.2
V 8 = - - = - - = 1.018 m/s
Area .1963
2
Total energy at A
PA VA
=EA=-+-+ZA
pg 2g
9.81 X 10 4 (6.369) 2
= + + 0 = 11.49 + 2.067 = 13.557 m
870 x9.81 2 x9.81
Total energy at B
Pn Vi
=En=-+-+Zn
pg 2g
5.886 X 10 4 (1.018) 2
= + + 4.0 = 6.896 + 0.052 + 4.0 = 10.948 m
870 X 9.81 2 X 9.81
(i) Direction of flow. As EA is more than E8 and hence flow is taking place from A to B. Ans.
(ii) Loss of head= hL = EA- E8 = 13.557- 10.948 = 2.609 m. Ans .
... 6. 7 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI'S EQUATION
Bernoulli's equation is applied in all problems of incompressible fluid flow where energy consid-
erations are involved. But we shall consider its application to the following measuring devices :
1. Venturimeter.
2. Orifice meter.
3. Pi tot-tube.
6. 7 .I Venturimeter. A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow of a fluid
flowing through a pipe. It consists of three parts :
(i) A short converging part, (ii) Throat, and (iii) Diverging part. It is based on the Principle of
Bernoulli's equation.
Expression for rate of flow through venturimeter
Consider a venturimeter fitted in a horizontal pipe through which a fluid is flowing (say water), as
shown in Fig. 6.9.
Let d 1 =diameter at inlet or at section (1), _i
p 1 = pressure at section (1) h
v 1 =velocity of fluid at section (1),
a= area at section (1) = ~ d 12
4
INLET HROAT
and d 2 , p 2 , v2, a 2 are corresponding values at section (2).
Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections (1) and (2), we get
Fig. 6.9 Venturimeter.
2 2
.E.!_+~ + z1 = 12_ + ~ + z2
pg 2g pg 2g
As pipe is horizontal, hence z1 = z2
2 2
.E!._+~=l2_+~ or
pg 2g pg 2g pg 2g 2g
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Dynamics of Fluid Flow 2691
But Pt - p 2 is the difference of pressure heads at sections 1 and 2 and it is equal to h or Pt - p 2 = h
M M
Substituting this value of Pt - p 2 in the above equation, we get
pg
2 2
h=~-~ ... (6.6)
2g 2g
Now applying continuity equation at sections 1 and 2
a2v2
Vt=--
al
Substituting this value of v1 in equation (6.6)
h = _v2_2
2g
_ - '(-a~-~2- '-)_'
2g
= vi [1 -
2g
a~ l= v~ [a~ -a~ l
a~ 2g a~
or
Discharge,
=a 2 a1 x .J2gh = a 1a 2 x .J2gh ... (6.7)
~a~ - a~ ~a~ - ai
Equation (6.7) gives the discharge under ideal conditions and is called, theoretical discharge. Actual
discharge will be less than theoretical discharge.
a 1a 2 Vl::i:
Qact = Cd X ~
a2- a22
X v2gh ... (6.8)
1
where Cd =Co-efficient of venturimeter and its value is less than 1.
Value of 'h' given by differential U-tube manometer
Case I. Let the differential manometer contains a liquid which is heavier than the liquid flowing
through the pipe. Let
Sh = Sp. gravity of the heavier liquid
S0 = Sp. gravity of the liquid flowing through pipe
x =Difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube
Then ... (6.9)
Case II. If the differential manometer contains a liquid which is lighter than the liquid flowing
through the pipe, the value of h is given by
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1270 Fluid Mechanics
... (6.10)
where S1 = Sp. gr. of lighter liquid in U-tube
S0 = Sp. gr. of fluid flowing through pipe
x = Difference of the lighter liquid columns in U-tube.
Case III. Inclined Venturimeter with Differential U-tube manometer. The above two cases are
given for a horizontal venturimeter. This case is related to inclined venturimeter having differential
U-tube manometer. Let the differential manometer contains heavier liquid then his given as
h=(:~+z 1 )-(;;+z2 ) =x [~:-1] ... (6.11)
Case IV. Similarly, for inclined venturimeter in which differential manometer contains a liquid
which is lighter than the liquid flowing through the pipe, the value of h is given as
h = (;~ + Z1 ) - ( ; ; + Z2 ) =X [1- ::] ... (6.12)
Problem 6.10 A horizontal venturimeter with inlet and throat diameters 30 em and 15 em respec-
tively is used to measure the flow of water. The reading of differential manometer connected to the
inlet and the throat is 20 em of mercury. Determine the rate offlow. Take Cd = 0.98.
Solution. Given :
Dia. at inlet, d 1 = 30 em
1t21t 2 2
Area at inlet, a1 = - d 1 = - (30) = 706.85 em
4 4
Dia. at throat, d2 = 15 em
1t 2 2
a 2 = - X 15 = 176.7 em
4
cd = o.98
Reading of differential manometer = x = 20 em of mercury.
. . Difference of pressure head is given by (6.9)
or h =x [ ~: - 1]
where Sh = Sp. gravity of mercury= 13.6, S0 = Sp. gravity of water= 1
[13.6 1] = 20 x 12.6 em= 252.0 em of water.
= 20 - 1- -
The discharge through venturimeter is given by eqn. (6.8)
Q = Cd ala2 X .J2gh
~a~- a;
= 0.98 X 706.85 X 176.7 X .J2 X 9.81 X 252
2
~(706.85) -(176.7) 2
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Dynamics of Fluid Flow 281 I
(ii) Difference in the levels of mercury columns (i.e., x)
The value of his given by, h=x [ ~: -1]
2.908 = X 13.6 1] =
[0.85
-- X [16- 1] = 15 X
x=- 2•908
- = 0 . 1938 m = 19.38 em of oil.
• Ans.
15
Problem 6.21 In a 100 mm diameter horizontal pipe a venturimeter of 0.5 contraction ratio has
been fixed. The head of water on the metre when there is no flow is 3 m (gauge). Find the rate offlow
for which the throat pressure will be 2 metres of water absolute. The co-efficient of discharge is 0.97.
Take atmospheric pressure head= 10.3 m of water.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe, d 1 = 100 mm = 10 em
1t21t 2 2
Area, a 1 = - d 1 = - (10) = 78.54 em
4 4
Dia. at throat, d 2 = 0.5 x d 1 = 0.5 x 10 = 5 em
1t 2 2
Area, a2 = - (5) = 19.635 em
4
Head of water for no flow = .f?J_ = 3m (gauge)= 3 + 10.3 = 13.3 m (abs.)
pg
Throat pressure head = 1?.1_ = 2 m of water absolute.
pg
Difference of pressure head, h = .f?J_ _1?.1_ = 13.3 - 2.0 = 11.3 m = 1130 em
pg pg
Rate of flow, Q is given by Q = Cd a 1a 2 X .J2gh
~a~- ai
= 0.97 x 78.54x19.635 x.J2x981x1130
~(78.54) - (19.635)
2 2
2227318.17 3 •
= = 29306.8 em Is = 29.306 htres/s. Ans.
76
6. 7.2 Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate. It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a
fluid through a pipe. It is a cheaper device as compared to venturimeter. It also works on the same
principle as that of venturimeter. It consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edged
hole called orifice, which is concentric with the pipe. The orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times
the diameter of the pipe, though it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe diameter.
A differential manometer is connected at section (1), which is at a distance of about 1.5 to 2.0 times
the pipe diameter upstream from the orifice plate, and at section (2), which is at a distance of about half
the diameter of the orifice on the downstream side from the orifice plate.
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1282 Fluid Mechanics
Let p 1 = pressure at section (1),
v 1 = velocity at section (1),
a 1 =area of pipe at section (1), and
PIPE _,::: ORIFICE METER
CD / .¥ ~
----
DIRECTION OF FLOW
- DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
Fig. 6.12. Orifice meter.
p 2, v 2, a 2 are corresponding values at section (2). Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections (1) and
(2), we get
or ( .f!J_ + Z1)- (!!.1_ + Z2) = v; - .d._
pg pg 2g 2g
But (;~ + Z 1) - ( ; ; + z2 ) = h =Differential head
2 2
h=~-~ or 2gh = v22 - 2
v1
2g 2g
or v2 = ~2gh + v~ ... (i)
Now section (2) is at the vena-contracta and a 2 represents the area at the vena-contracta. If a 0 is
the area of orifice then, we have
cc =~
ao
where Cc = Co-efficient of contraction
.. a 2 =a 0 x Cc ... (ii)
By continuity equation, we have
a2 ao Cc
a 1v1 = a 2v2 or v1 = - v2 = v2 ... (iii)
al al
Substituting the value of v1 in equation (i), we get
a2C2v2
v2 = 2gh + o ~ 2
al
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Dynamics of Fluid Flow 2831
or
.J2gh
v2=----r=======
1- ( :~ c;J
The discharge Q = v2 x a 2 = v2 x a0 Cc
aocc.J2gh
= ----;::::=========== ... (iv)
1- ( :~ Jc;
The above expression is simplified by using
FB
1-(~ c; J
1-(~ c; J
FB
Substituting this value of Cc in equation (iv), we get
... (6 .13)
where Cd = Co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter.
The co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter is much smaller than that for a venturimeter.
Problem 6.22 An orifice meter with orifice diameter 10 em is inserted in a pipe of20 em diameter.
The pressure gauges fitted upstream and downstream of the orifice meter gives readings of
19.62 N/cm 2 and 9.81 N/cm 2 respectively. Co-efficient of discharge for the orifice meter is given as
0.6. Find the discharge of water through pipe.
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Dynamics of Fluid Flow 2851
=50 x 14.11 = 705.5 em of oil
cd = o.64
The rate of the flow, Q is given by equation (6.13)
= 0.64 X 176.7 X 706.85 X ~2 X 981 X 705.5
~(706.85) 2 - (176.7) 2
= 94046317·78 = 137414.25 cm 3/s = 137.414 litres/s. Ans.
684.4
6. 7.3 Pitot-tube. It is a device used for measuring the
velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a channel. It is based on T
h
the principle that if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero,
the pressure there is increased due to the conversion of the kinetic
energy into pressure energy. In its simplest form, the pitot-tube H
consists of a glass tube, bent at right angles as shown in Fig. 6.13. j_
The lower end, which is bent through 90° is directed in the up-
stream direction as shown in Fig. 6.13. The liquid rises up in the
tube due to the conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy.
The velocity is determined by measuring the rise of liquid in the tube. Fig. 6.13 Pitot-tube.
Consider two points (1) and (2) at the same level in such a way that point (2) is just as the inlet of
the pitot-tube and point (1) is far away from the tube.
Let p 1 = intensity of pressure at point ( 1)
v 1 = velocity of flow at ( 1)
p 2 =pressure at point (2)
v2 = velocity at point (2), which is zero
H =depth of tube in the liquid
h =rise of liquid in the tube above the free surface.
Applying Bernoulli's equation at points (1) and (2), we get
2 2
1!..!_ + 2 + z1 = .!!.1._ + ~+ z2
pg 2g pg 2g
But z1 = z2 as points (1) and (2) are on the same line and v2 =0.
1!..!_ =pressure head at (1) = H
pg
.!!.1._ =pressure head at (2) = (h + H)
pg
Substituting these values, we get
2 2
H+ ~ =(h+ H) h =~ or v 1 = ~2gh
2g 2g
This is theoretical velocity. Actual velocity is given by
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1286 Fluid Mechanics
(vl)act = Cv .J2gh
where Cv = Co-efficient of pitot-tube
Velocity at any point ... (6.14)
Velocity of flow in a pipe by pitot-tube. For finding the velocity at any point in a pipe by pitot-
tube, the following arrangements are adopted :
1. Pitot-tube along with a vertical piezometer tube as shown in Fig. 6.14.
2. Pitot-tube connected with piezometer tube as shown in Fig. 6.15.
3. Pitot-tube and vertical piezometer tube connected with a differential U-tube manometer as
shown in Fig. 6.16.
PIEZOMET ER
T UBE
1
h
/ PITOT-TUBE
-- ------------ ·
Fig . 6.14
-----------
Fig. 6.16
4. Pitot-static tube, which consists of two circular concentric tubes one inside the other with some
annular space in between as shown in Fig. 6.17. The outlet of these two tubes are connected to the
differential manometer where the difference of pressure head 'h' is measured by knowing the
difference of the levels of the manometer liquid say x. Then h =x [ ~: - 1].
Problem 6.24 A pitot-static tube placed in the centre of a 300 mm pipe line has one orifice pointing
upstream and other perpendicular to it. The mean velocity in the pipe is 0.80 of the central velocity.
Find the discharge through the pipe if the pressure difference between the two orifices is
60 mm of water. Take the co-efficient ofpitot tube as Cv = 0.98.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe, d = 300 mm = 0.30 m
Diff. of pressure head, h = 60 mm of water = .06 m of water
cv =0.98
Mean velocity, V =0.80 x Central velocity
Central velocity is given by equation (6.14)
= Cv .J2gh =0.98 X .J2 X 9.81 X .06 = 1.063 m/s
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1288 Fluid Mechanics
pitot-tube is 0.981 N/cm 2• Calculate the rate of flow of water through pipe, if the mean velocity of
flow is 0.85 times the central velocity. Take Cv = 0.98.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe, d = 300 mm = 0.30 m
Area, a= : d 2 = : (.3) 2 = 0.07068 m 2
Static pressure head = 100 mm of mercury (vacuum)
=- -100- x 13.6 =- 1.36 m of water
1000
Stagnation pressure = .981 N/cm2 = .981 x 104 N/m2
.981 X 10 4 = .981 x 10 4 = 1 m
Stagnation pressure head = pg 1000 X 9.81
h = Stagnation pressure head- Static pressure head
= 1.0- (- 1.36) = 1.0 + 1.36 =2.36 m of water
Velocity at centre = cv ..j2gh
=0.98 X ..j2 X 9.81 X 2.36 =6.668 m/s
Mean velocity, V =0.85 x 6.668 = 5.6678 m/s
.. Rate of flow of water = V x area of pipe
=5.6678 x 0.07068 m 3/s =0.4006 m 3/s. Ans.
llll- 6.8 THE MOMENTUM EQUATION
It is based on the law of conservation of momentum or on the momentum principle, which states
that the net force acting on a fluid mass is equal to the change in momentum of flow per unit time in
that direction. The force acting on a fluid mass 'm' is given by the Newton's second law of motion,
F=mxa
where a is the acceleration acting in the same direction as force F.
dv
But a=-
dt
F=m dv
dt
d(mv)
= dt
{m is constant and can be taken inside the differential}
F = d(mv) ... (6.15)
dt
Equation (6.15) is known as the momentum principle.
Equation (6.15) can be written as [Link] = d(mv) ... (6.16)
which is known as the impulse-momentum equation and states that the impulse of a force F acting on a
fluid of mass min a short interval of time dt is equal to the change of momentum d(mv) in the direction
of force.
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Dynamics of Fluid Flow 2891
Force exerted by a flowing fluid on a pipe bend
The impulse-momentum equation (6.16) is used to determine the resultant force exerted by a
flowing fluid on a pipe bend.
Consider two sections (1) and (2), as shown in Fig. 6.18.
Let v 1 = velocity of flow at section (1 ),
p 1 = pressure intensity at section (1 ),
A 1 = area of cross-section of pipe at section (1) and
v2 , p 2, A 2 = corresponding values of velocity, pressure and area at section (2).
Let Fx and FY be the components of the forces exerted by the flowing fluid on the bend in x-and
y-directions respectively. Then the force exerted by the bend on the fluid in the directions of x andy
will be equal to Fx and FY but in the opposite directions. Hence component of the force exerted by
bend on the fluid in the x-direction =- Fx and in the direction of y =- FY. The other external forces
acting on the fluid are p 1A 1 and p0 2 on the sections (1) and (2) respectively. Then momentum
equation in x-direction is given by
CD
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.18 Forces on bend.
Net force acting on fluid in the direction of x = Rate of change of momentum in x-direction
·· PIAl - P0 2 cos e- Fx = (Mass per sec) (change of velocity)
= pQ (Final velocity in the direction of x
- Initial velocity in the direction of x)
= pQ (V2 cos V1) e- ... (6.17)
.. Fx = pQ (V1 - V2 cos e)+ p 1A 1 - p0 2 cos e ... (6.18)
Similarly the momentum equation in y-direction gives
0 - p0 2 sin e- Fy = pQ (V2 sin e-
0) ... (6.19)
.. Fy = pQ (- V2 sin e)-
p0 2 sin e ... (6.20)
Now the resultant force (FR) acting on the bend
= vfpz + Fzy
X
... (6.21)
And the angle made by the resultant force with horizontal direction is given by
F
tan e = _Y ... (6.22)
Fx
Problem 6.29 A 45° reducing bend is connected in a pipe line, the diameters at the inlet and outlet
of the bend being 600 mm and 300 mm respectively. Find the force exerted by water on the bend if the
intensity of pressure at inlet to bend is 8.829 N/cm 2 and rate of flow of water is 600 litre sis.
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