Chapter – Chemical  Number of atoms of each

element must be equal on both

Reactions and Equations sides.
 Example:
1. Introduction Zn + H₂SO₄ → ZnSO₄ + H₂
(Balanced)
 Everyday changes like milk
turning sour, rusting of iron, Steps to Balance:
cooking food, respiration, and
fermentation involve chemical  Write skeletal equation.
reactions.  Count atoms on both sides.
 A chemical reaction occurs  Balance using smallest whole
when the identity and properties numbers.
of the initial substance change  Add state symbols:
to form a new substance. o (s) solid, (l) liquid, (g)
gas, (aq) aqueous solution.
Indicators of a chemical reaction:
 Change in state 3. Types of Chemical
 Change in colour Reactions
 Evolution of gas (i) Combination Reactions
 Change in temperature

2. Chemical Equations  Two or more substances

combine to form a single
 A chemical reaction can be product.
represented using word  Example:
equations and chemical CaO + H₂O → Ca(OH)₂
equations. (Slaked lime)
 Word Equation Example:  Usually exothermic (release
Magnesium + Oxygen → heat).
Magnesium Oxide  Other examples:
 Skeletal Chemical Equation: o C + O₂ → CO₂

Mg + O₂ → MgO o 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O

o Respiration: C₆H₁₂O₆ +
Balanced Chemical Equation 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O +
Energy
 Based on the Law of
Conservation of Mass: “Mass (ii) Decomposition Reactions
can neither be created nor
destroyed.”  One substance breaks down into
two or more products.
  Requires energy (heat, light, o CuO + H₂ → Cu + H₂O
electricity). (Reduction of copper
 Example: oxide, oxidation of
o CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂ hydrogen)
(Thermal decomposition)  Both occur together → Redox
o 2AgCl → 2Ag + Cl₂ reaction.
(Photodecomposition by
sunlight) 4. Effects of Oxidation in
Everyday Life
o Electrolysis of water →
H₂ + O₂ (i) Corrosion
 Endothermic if energy is
absorbed.  Slow damage of metals due to
reaction with air, water, or
(iii) Displacement Reactions chemicals.
 Examples:
 A more reactive element o Rusting of iron (reddish-
displaces a less reactive element brown coating)
from its compound. o Black coating on silver
 Example: o Green coating on copper
Fe + CuSO₄ → FeSO₄ + Cu  Causes huge financial loss in
(iv) Double Displacement industries.
Reactions
(ii) Rancidity
 Exchange of ions between two
 Fats and oils when oxidised
compounds.
develop bad taste and smell.
 Often form a precipitate.
 Prevention:
 Example:
o Use antioxidants
Na₂SO₄ + BaCl₂ → BaSO₄ (↓)
o Store in airtight containers
+ 2NaCl
o Flush chips packets with

(v) Oxidation and Reduction nitrogen

(Redox Reactions)

 Oxidation: Gain of oxygen /

loss of hydrogen.
 Reduction: Loss of oxygen /
gain of hydrogen.
 Example:
o 2Cu + O₂ → 2CuO
(Oxidation of copper)
 CO₂ test: Pass through lime water →
Chapter – Acids, Bases turns milky due to CaCO₃ formation.
and Salts (iv) Reaction with Metal Oxides
Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water

1. Indicators and Properties of Example:

Acids & Bases
CuO+ 2 HCl → CuC l2 + H 2 O
 Acids: Sour taste, turn blue litmus
→ red. → Thus, metal oxides are basic in nature.
 Bases: Bitter taste, soapy, turn red
litmus → blue. (v) Reaction with Non-metal
 Natural indicators: Litmus, Oxides
turmeric, red cabbage, flower petals. Non-metal oxide + Base → Salt + Water
 Synthetic indicators:
Phenolphthalein (colourless → pink Example:
in base), methyl orange (orange → C O2 +Ca ¿
red in acid, yellow in base).
 Olfactory indicators: Onion, clove, → Hence, non-metal oxides are acidic in
vanilla – change odour in acid/base. nature.

2. Chemical Properties of Acids 3. Acids and Bases in Water

and Bases  Acids generate H⁺ (or H₃O⁺) ions
only in aqueous solution.
(i) Reaction with Metals –

HCl+ H 2 O→ H 3 O+¿+C l ¿

Acid + Metal → Salt + H2 ↑

 Bases generate OH⁻ ions in water.
Example: NaOH → N a +¿+O H
–
¿
Zn+ H 2 S O4 → ZnS O4 + H 2 ↑
 Therefore:
Test: Bring a burning splinter → H₂ burns −¿( aq)→ H2 O ¿

H +¿(aq)+O H ¿

with “pop” sound.

 Dilution: Adding acid/base to water
(ii) Reaction with Bases decreases ion concentration; always
(Neutralisation) add acid to water (exothermic
Acid + Base → Salt + Water reaction).
4. Strength of Acids and Bases –
Example:
NaOH + HCl → NaCl+ H 2 O pH Scale

(iii) Reaction with Metal  pH = “power of hydrogen ion

Carbonates & Bicarbonates concentration”.
Metal carbonate + Acid → Salt + CO 2 ↑+ H 2 O  Scale: 0 → 14
Metal bicarbonate + Acid → Salt + CO 2 ↑+ H 2 O o pH < 7 → Acidic
o pH = 7 → Neutral

Example: o pH > 7 → Basic

N a2 C O3 +2 HCl→ 2 NaCl+ C O2 ↑+ H 2 O
  Strong acids (e.g., HCl, H₂SO₄) (iii) Chemicals from Common Salt
give more H⁺. Weak acids (e.g., (NaCl)
CH₃COOH) give fewer H⁺.
 Strong bases (NaOH, KOH) produce  Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH):
o Made by Chlor-alkali
more OH⁻; weak bases (NH₄OH)
produce less OH⁻. process (electrolysis of brine).
o Products: NaOH, Cl₂, H₂.
o Uses: soaps, detergents, paper,
Examples of pH in daily life: rayon.
 Stomach HCl: pH ~ 1–2 2 NaCl+2 H 2 O →2 NaOH +C l 2 ↑+ H 2 ↑
 Tooth decay starts below pH 5.5
 Blood: pH 7.4  Bleaching Powder (Ca(OCl)₂):
 Acid rain: pH < 5.6 o Made by passing Cl₂ over slaked
lime.
5. Importance of pH in Everyday o Uses: disinfectant, bleaching
Life fabrics, paper industry.

 Digestion: Excess HCl → Ca ¿

indigestion → treated with antacids
 Baking Soda (NaHCO₃):
like Mg(OH)₂. o Made from NaCl, NH₃, CO₂,
 Tooth decay: pH < 5.5 corrodes H₂O.
enamel (Ca₅(PO₄)₃OH). o Uses: baking powder (NaHCO₃ +
 Self-defense in nature: tartaric acid), antacid, fire
o Bee sting injects methanoic extinguishers.
acid → relief by base (baking
On heating:
soda).
o Nettle plant sting (methanoic 2 NaHC O3 → N a2 C O3 + H 2 O+ C O2 ↑
acid) → treated by rubbing
dock plant leaves (basic).  Washing Soda (Na₂CO₃·10H₂O):
o Made by recrystallisation of
6. Salts and Their Uses sodium carbonate.
o Uses: softening hard water,
(i) Families of Salts glass/soap industry, cleaning agent.
 Plaster of Paris (CaSO₄·½H₂O):
 Salts with same positive or negative o Made by heating gypsum
ion belong to a family. (CaSO₄·2H₂O) at 373K.
o Example: NaCl, Na₂SO₄ → o Uses: plastering, making statues,
sodium family. toys.

(ii) pH of Salts
❑
1 3
CaS O4 ⋅2 H 2 O → CaS O4 ⋅ H 2 O+ H 2 O
2 2
 Strong acid + strong base → neutral
7. Water of Crystallisation
(pH 7), e.g., NaCl.
 Strong acid + weak base → acidic
 Fixed number of water molecules in a salt.
(pH < 7), e.g., NH₄Cl.  Examples:
 Weak acid + strong base → basic o Copper sulphate (CuSO₄·5H₂O)
(pH > 7), e.g., Na₂CO₃. → blue colour.
o Gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O).
 Heating removes water of crystallisation
(CuSO₄ turns white).
 Alkali oxides (Na₂O, K₂O) dissolve in
Chapter – Metals and 
water → alkalis.

Non-Metals N a2 O+ H 2 O → 2 NaOH

(ii) Reaction with Water

1. Physical Properties Metal + H 2 O → Metal oxide + H2 ↑
Metals
 K, Na: react violently with cold water.
 Lustre: Shiny in pure state (metallic
lustre). 2 Na+ 2 H 2 O→ 2 NaOH + H 2 ↑
 Malleability: Can be beaten into thin
sheets (Gold & Silver → most malleable).  Ca: reacts slowly, floats.
 Ductility: Can be drawn into wires (Gold
→ most ductile, 1 g → 2 km wire). Ca+2 H 2 O →Ca ¿
 Hardness: Generally hard (Na, K → soft,
cut with knife).  Mg: reacts with hot water.
 Conductivity: Good conductors of heat &  Al, Fe, Zn: react with steam.
electricity (Silver, Copper best; Lead,  Cu, Ag, Au: no reaction.
Mercury poor).
 Melting/Boiling point: High (exceptions: (iii) Reaction with Acids
Gallium, Caesium melt on palm).
 Sonority: Produce ringing sound (school Metal + Dilute acid → Salt + H 2 ↑
bells).
 Examples:
Non-Metals o Mg+ 2 HCl → MgC l 2 + H 2 ↑
o Zn+ H 2 S O 4 → ZnS O 4 + H 2 ↑
 Usually gases or brittle solids (except  Reactivity order: Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Cu.
Bromine → liquid).  With HNO₃ → generally no H₂ (oxidising
 Poor conductors of heat/electricity (except acid).
Graphite).
 Not lustrous (exception: Iodine shiny). (iv) Reaction with Salt Solutions
 Allotropes: Diamond (hardest), Graphite (Displacement Reactions)
(conductor).
Metal A + Salt solution of B → Salt of A + Metal B
2. Chemical Properties of Metals
 Example:
(i) Reaction with Oxygen o Fe+CuS O 4 → FeS O 4 +Cu
Metal + O2 → Metal oxide
3. Reactivity Series
 Examples:
o 2 Cu+ O 2 → 2CuO (black)
Order:
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb > [H] >
o 4 Al +3 O 2 → 2 A l 2 O 3
Cu > Hg > Ag > Au
 Nature of Oxides:
o Basic (e.g., CuO). 4. How Metals and Non-Metals React
o Amphoteric (ZnO, Al₂O₃).
 Metals lose electrons → form cations.
A l 2 O3 +6 HCl → 2 AlC l 3 +3 H 2 O  Non-metals gain electrons → form anions.
A l 2 O3 +2 NaOH →2 NaAl O2+ H 2 O  Example:
o Na (2,8,1) → Na⁺ (2,8)
o Cl (2,8,7) → Cl⁻ (2,8,8)
 o Together form NaCl (ionic 6. Corrosion and Prevention
compound).
 Rusting of Iron:
Properties of Ionic Compounds Fe+O2 + H 2 O→ F e 2 O3 ⋅ x H 2 O(brown
rust).
 Hard, brittle solids.  Copper: Forms green basic carbonate.
 High melting/boiling points.  Silver: Forms black Ag₂S.
 Soluble in water.
 Conduct electricity in molten/aqueous Prevention:
state.
 Painting, oiling, greasing, galvanisation,
5. Occurrence and Extraction of anodising, alloying.
Metals
7. Alloys
 Minerals: Natural compounds of metals.
 Ores: Minerals from which metals  Definition: Homogeneous mixture of 2 or
extracted profitably. more metals, or metal + non-metal.
 Gangue: Impurities like sand, soil.  Examples:
o Brass (Cu+Zn)
Categories of Metals o Bronze (Cu+Sn)
o Solder (Pb+Sn, low melting point)
 Low reactivity (Cu, Hg, Ag, Au): Found o Stainless Steel (Fe+Cr+Ni)
free or as sulphides/oxides → reduced by o Amalgam (alloy with mercury)
heating.
o Example:

2 HgS+3 O2 → 2 HgO +2 S O2
2 HgO →2 Hg+O2

 Medium reactivity (Zn, Fe, Pb): Found

as sulphides/carbonates.
o Roasting:
2 ZnS +3 O2 → 2 ZnO +2 S O2
o Calcination:
ZnC O3 → ZnO +C O2
o Reduction:
ZnO+C → Zn+CO
o Thermite reaction:
F e 2 O3 +2 Al → 2 Fe+ A l 2 O3+ Heat

 High reactivity (Na, Ca, Al): Extracted

by electrolysis.
o Example:
−¿→ Na¿
 At cathode: N a+¿+e ¿
−¿¿
−¿→ C l +2 e ¿
 At anode: 2 C l 2

Refining of Metals

 Done by electrolytic refining (e.g.,

copper).
 Impure metal = anode, Pure metal =
cathode, Metal salt solution = electrolyte.
 Catenation: Ability to form long chains,
Chapter – Carbon and 
branches, rings with single/double/triple
bonds.
it’s Compounds o e.g. CH₄, C₂H₆, C₂H₄, C₂H₂.
 Tetravalency: Carbon bonds with H, O,
N, S, Cl etc. → stable compounds.
1. Importance of Carbon
5. Types of Carbon Compounds
 Found in all living beings and many daily- (i) Saturated Compounds
use substances (food, clothes, medicines,
fuels).
 Contain only single bonds (Alkanes).
 In Earth’s crust: 0.02% carbon, in
 Example: CH₄, C₂H₆, C₃H₈.
atmosphere: 0.03% CO₂.
 Carbon forms millions of compounds due
(ii) Unsaturated Compounds
to special bonding properties.
 Contain double or triple bonds.
2. Bonding in Carbon – Covalent
 Alkenes (C=C): C₂H₄, C₃H₆.
Bond  Alkynes (C≡C): C₂H₂.

 Carbon has atomic number 6 → (iii) Isomerism

configuration = 2,4 → 4 valence electrons.
 It cannot easily form C⁴⁺ or C⁴⁻ → instead  Same molecular formula, different
shares electrons. structures.
 Covalent bond: Formed by sharing of  Example: Butane → n-butane & isobutane.
electron pairs.
 Examples: (iv) Chains, Branches & Rings
o H₂ (single bond)
o O₂ (double bond)  Straight chain (pentane), branched chain,
o N₂ (triple bond) cyclic compounds (cyclohexane, benzene
o CH₄ (Methane, tetravalent carbon) C₆H₆).

Properties of covalent compounds: 6. Functional Groups

 Low melting/boiling points.
Atoms or groups replacing H in hydrocarbons,
 Poor conductors of electricity.
giving characteristic properties.
3. Allotropes of Carbon
Functional Formul Example
Group a
 Diamond: Each C atom linked to 4 others
Alcohol –OH CH₃–OH (Methanol)
(3D rigid structure). Hardest natural
Aldehyde –CHO CH₃–CHO (Ethanal)
substance. Non-conductor.
 Graphite: Each C linked to 3 others in Ketone –CO– CH₃–CO–CH₃
layers, free electrons → conductor, soft & (Propanone)
slippery. Carboxylic –COOH CH₃–COOH
 Fullerenes: e.g. C₆₀ Buckminsterfullerene Acid (Ethanoic acid)
(football-like structure). Haloalkane –Cl, –Br CH₃–Cl
(Chloromethane)
4. Versatile Nature of Carbon

Two main reasons: 7. Homologous Series

  Series of compounds with same functional  Dehydration with conc. H₂SO₄ (443K):
group, differing by –CH₂ unit.
 General formulas: C 2 H 5 OH →C 2 H 4 + H 2 O
o Alkanes: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂
o Alkenes: CₙH₂ₙ (B) Ethanoic Acid (CH₃COOH)
o Alkynes: CₙH₂ₙ₋₂
 Similar chemical properties; gradual  Also called acetic acid. 5–8% solution =
change in physical properties. vinegar.
Reactions:
8. Chemical Properties of Carbon  Esterification:
Compounds ❑
C H 3 COOH + C2 H 5 OH → C H 3 COO C2 H 5 + H 2 O
(i) Combustion
C+ O2 → C O2+ h eatC H 4 +2 O2 → C O2 +2 H 2 O+h eat  With NaOH:

 Saturated hydrocarbons → clean flame. C H 3 COOH + NaOH → C H 3 COONa+ H 2 O

 Unsaturated → yellow sooty flame.
 With Na₂CO₃ / NaHCO₃:
(ii) Oxidation
2 C H 3 COOH + N a 2 C O3 →2 C H 3 COONa+ H 2 O+C O2
 Alcohol → Carboxylic acid (with alkaline
KMnO₄ or acidified K₂Cr₂O₇). 10. Soaps and Detergents

(iii) Addition Reaction  Soap: Sodium/potassium salts of long-

(Unsaturated compounds) chain fatty acids.
 Cleansing action due to micelle formation
 Addition of H₂ in presence of Ni/Pd (hydrophobic tail in oil, hydrophilic head
catalyst. in water).
❑
 Effective in soft water, form scum in hard
C 2 H 4 + H 2 → C2 H 6 water.
 Detergents: Sodium salts of sulphonic
acids / ammonium salts.
 Used in hydrogenation of oils.
o Work in both soft & hard water.

(iv) Substitution Reaction

(Saturated compounds)

 In presence of sunlight.

C H 4 +C l 2 → C H 3 Cl+ HCl

9. Important Carbon Compounds

(A) Ethanol (C₂H₅OH)

 Liquid, soluble in water, active in

alcoholic drinks, used in medicines &
fuels.
Reactions:
 With sodium:

2 Na+ 2C 2 H 5 OH → 2C 2 H 5 ONa+ H 2 ↑
 Nutrition in Amoeba
Chapter – Life Process
 Uses pseudopodia to engulf food → food
vacuole forms → enzymes digest food →
1. What are Life Processes? diffusion → waste expelled.

 Life processes: Maintenance functions of Nutrition in Humans

living organisms (nutrition, respiration,
transport, excretion).  Alimentary canal: Mouth → oesophagus
 Needed to repair and maintain structures. → stomach → small intestine → large
 Energy is required, obtained from food. intestine → anus.
 Simple diffusion enough in unicellular  Digestive process:
organisms, but multicellular organisms o Mouth: Teeth grind food; saliva
need specialized systems. (amylase) → starch → sugar.
o Stomach: Gastric glands secrete
2. Nutrition HCl (kills germs, acidic medium),
pepsin (digests proteins), mucus
Definition: (protects lining).
o Small intestine:
Process by which living organisms obtain food  Bile (from liver) emulsifies
and energy for growth, repair, and maintenance. fats.
 Pancreatic juice: trypsin
Types of Nutrition (proteins), lipase (fats).
 Intestinal juice:
 Autotrophic Nutrition – Organisms carbohydrates → glucose,
prepare their own food (plants, some proteins → amino acids,
bacteria). fats → fatty acids +
o Process: Photosynthesis glycerol.
 Digested food absorbed by
❑ villi.
6 C O2 +6 H 2 O→ C 6 H 12 O6 +6 O2 o Large intestine: Absorbs water,
waste → anus.
o Steps:
(i) Absorption of light by 3. Respiration
chlorophyll.
(ii) Splitting of water → H₂ + O₂. Definition:
(iii) Reduction of CO₂ →
carbohydrates. Process by which energy is released from food
o Raw materials: CO₂ (stomata), (glucose) inside cells.
H₂O (roots), sunlight, chlorophyll.
o By-product: Oxygen. Steps:
 Heterotrophic Nutrition – Organisms
depend on others for food.  Glucose (6C) → Pyruvate (3C) in
o Types: cytoplasm.
 Saprotrophic: Break down  Pathways of pyruvate:
food outside (fungi, o Anaerobic (without O₂):
mushrooms).  Yeast: Pyruvate → Ethanol
 Parasitic: Derive food + CO₂ + little energy.
from host (cuscuta, ticks,  Humans (muscles):
lice, leeches). Pyruvate → Lactic acid
 Holozoic: Ingestion & (causes cramps).
digestion inside body o Aerobic (with O₂):
(amoeba, humans).
  Pyruvate → CO₂ + H₂O +  Phloem: Translocates food (leaves →
large energy (in other parts). Requires ATP (active
mitochondria). transport).

ATP – Energy currency of cells 5. Excretion

 One glucose → 38 ATP (aerobic). Definition:

 Used for muscle contraction, protein
synthesis, nerve impulses. Removal of waste products of metabolism from
body.
Respiration in Humans
In Humans
 Organs: Nostrils → trachea (with cartilage
rings) → bronchi → bronchioles →  Organs: Kidneys, ureters, urinary
alveoli. bladder, urethra.
 Alveoli: Thin-walled, surrounded by blood  Nephron (functional unit of kidney):
capillaries → gas exchange. o Bowman’s capsule + tubule.
 O₂ carried by haemoglobin, CO₂ mostly o Filtration → reabsorption (glucose,
dissolved in plasma. water, amino acids) → urine
 Double circulation: Blood passes through formation.
heart twice in one cycle – separates O₂-  Urine: Contains urea, uric acid, excess
rich and O₂-poor blood. salts, water.
 Artificial kidney (dialysis): Removes
4. Transportation waste when kidneys fail.

In Humans In Plants

 Blood: Plasma (carries food, waste), RBC o O₂ (from photosynthesis) → released.

(O₂), WBC (defense), Platelets (clotting). o CO₂ (respiration) → released.
 Heart: o Excess water → transpiration.
o 4 chambers – right atrium & o Other wastes → stored in vacuoles, gums,
ventricle (deoxygenated blood), left resins, or excreted into soil.
atrium & ventricle (oxygenated
blood).
o Valves prevent backflow.
o Double circulation: Efficient
supply of O₂.
 Blood vessels: Arteries (thick walls, high
pressure, away from heart), Veins (thin
walls, valves, towards heart), Capillaries
(one-cell thick).
 Lymph: Tissue fluid; carries fats, returns
fluid to blood.

In Plants

 Xylem: Transports water + minerals (roots

→ leaves).
o Forces: Root pressure, transpiration
pull.
 Medulla: Controls involuntary
Chapter – Control and o
actions like breathing, heart rate,
vomiting.
Coordination o Cerebellum: Controls posture,
balance, precision in voluntary
actions.
Introduction
Protection:
 Living organisms respond to changes in
 Brain → Bony skull + fluid cushion.
their environment.
 Spinal cord → Vertebral column.
 These responses are controlled and
coordinated by special systems:
Muscular Response
o Animals → Nervous & Muscular
Systems.
o Plants → Hormonal (chemical)
 Muscles move by shortening and
coordination. relaxing.
 Special proteins inside muscle cells change
shape when stimulated by impulses.
1. Control & Coordination in
 Voluntary muscles → under conscious
Animals control.
 Involuntary muscles → not under
Nervous System
conscious control.
 Neuron (nerve cell) is the functional unit.
2. Control & Coordination in
o Dendrites → Receive information.
o Axon → Carries impulse.
Plants
o Synapse → Gap between neurons,
Plant Movements
where electrical signals convert
into chemical signals.
 Immediate Response (non-growth):
o Example: Touch-me-not (Mimosa)
Important line: “Nervous tissue is made up of an
leaves fold on touch.
organised network of nerve cells or neurons and is
o Works by change in water pressure
specialised for conducting information via
in cells (turgor changes).
electrical impulses.”
 Growth-Dependent Movements
(tropism):
Reflex Actions
o Phototropism → shoot bends
towards light.
 Definition: Sudden, automatic, and
o Geotropism → root grows
involuntary responses to a stimulus.
downward, shoot upward.
 Example: Pulling hand back from flame,
o Hydrotropism → roots grow
blinking, sneezing.
towards water.
 Reflex Arc: Pathway connecting sensory
o Chemotropism → pollen tube
neurons to motor neurons via the spinal
grows towards ovule.
cord (quick response without brain
involvement).
Plant Hormones
Human Brain
 Auxins: Promote cell elongation; help in
phototropism & tendril coiling.
 Forebrain: Thinking, memory, senses,
 Gibberellins: Promote stem growth.
hunger.
 Cytokinins: Promote cell division;
 Midbrain: Controls involuntary actions
abundant in fruits and seeds.
(e.g., pupil size).
 Abscisic Acid (ABA): Inhibits growth;
 Hindbrain:
causes wilting and leaf fall.
 3. Hormones in Animals

Endocrine System

 Glands secrete hormones → regulate

growth, metabolism, reproduction.

Major Hormones:

 Adrenaline (Adrenal gland): “Fight or

Flight” hormone; increases heartbeat,
breathing, blood supply to muscles.
 Thyroxin (Thyroid gland): Regulates
metabolism of proteins, fats, carbs.
Needs iodine → deficiency causes Goitre.
 Growth Hormone (Pituitary
gland): Regulates growth; deficiency →
dwarfism, excess → gigantism.
 Insulin (Pancreas): Regulates blood
sugar; deficiency causes Diabetes.
 Testosterone (Testes): Male sex hormone,
puberty changes.
 Oestrogen (Ovaries): Female sex
hormone, menstrual cycle, puberty
changes.
 Examples: Hydra, Planaria.
Chapter – How do 
 Note: Needs special regenerative cells.

Organism Reproduce? (d) Budding

 New individual develops as an outgrowth

(bud) from parent.
Introduction
 Examples: Yeast, Hydra.
 Reproduction is not essential for the (e) Vegetative Propagation (in
survival of an individual but is necessary plants)
for the continuity of species.
 It involves creating copies of DNA and  New plants grow from root, stem, or
cellular apparatus. leaves.
 Variation during reproduction is  Examples:
important for survival in changing o Bryophyllum – leaf buds.
environments (basis of evolution).
o Potato – tuber buds.
o Sugarcane, Rose, Grapes – stem
1. Importance of DNA Copying
cuttings/layering/grafting.
 Tissue culture – artificial method to grow
 Definition: Reproduction at its basic level plants in labs.
means making copies of the DNA.
 DNA copying ensures organisms of the (f) Spore Formation
same species look similar.
 Variation: Small changes in DNA occur  Rhizopus (bread mould): Produces
during copying → leads to diversity. spores in sporangia (tiny blobs).
 Example: Some bacteria may survive heat  Spores are protected by thick walls until
due to variation. conditions are favourable.
2. Modes of Asexual Reproduction 👉 All these methods involve one parent →
called Asexual Reproduction.
(a) Fission
3. Sexual Reproduction
 Binary fission: Organism splits into two
(e.g., Amoeba → any Why Sexual Reproduction?
plane; Leishmania → definite
orientation).  Involves fusion of male and female
 Multiple fission: Organism divides into gametes.
many daughter cells (e.g., Plasmodium –  Generates greater variation (due to DNA
malaria parasite). recombination).
 Maintains chromosome number
(b) Fragmentation by meiosis.
 Definition: Parent body breaks into Sexual Reproduction in Plants
fragments, each grows into a new
individual.  Flower is the reproductive part.
 Example: Spirogyra (algae). o Stamen (male
part): Produces pollen grains.
(c) Regeneration o Pistil (female
part): Contains ovary, style,
 Definition: Ability of organisms to regrow stigma. Ovary has ovules with egg
into a whole new individual from body cells.
parts.  Pollination: Transfer of pollen → stigma.
 o Self-pollination → same flower.  Placenta: Connects embryo with mother
o Cross-pollination → another → supplies nutrients & oxygen, removes
flower (via wind, water, insects). wastes.
 Fertilisation: Male gamete (pollen) +  Pregnancy duration: ~9 months.
Female gamete (egg) → Zygote.
 Post fertilisation events: Menstruation
o Ovule → Seed.
o Ovary → Fruit.  If egg is not fertilised → uterine lining
o Petals, sepals fall off. sheds as blood & mucus (periods).
 Germination: Seed grows into a new  Cycle: ~28 days.
plant.
Reproductive Health
Sexual Reproduction in Humans
 STDs: Syphilis, Gonorrhoea (bacterial),
Puberty
HIV/AIDS, warts (viral).
 Prevention: Condoms, safe sex.
 Period of sexual maturity (10–12 years  Contraceptives:
onwards). o Barrier → Condoms, diaphragms.
 Changes in boys: Facial hair, cracking of o Hormonal → Pills.
voice, enlargement of penis, testosterone o IUCDs → Copper-T, Loop.
secretion. o Surgical → Vasectomy (male),
 Changes in girls: Breast development, Tubectomy (female).
menstruation, enlargement of hips,  Population control: Prevents unwanted
oestrogen secretion. pregnancies and reduces stress on
resources.
Male Reproductive System

 Testes: Produce sperm + hormone

testosterone.
 Vas deferens: Transports sperm.
 Seminal vesicles & Prostate gland: Add
secretions (semen → provides nutrition +
fluidity).
 Urethra: Common passage for sperm &
urine.
 Penis: Organ for sperm delivery.

Female Reproductive System

 Ovaries: Produce eggs + female

hormones.
 Oviduct/Fallopian tubes: Transport egg,
site of fertilisation.
 Uterus: Site of embryo implantation &
development.
 Vagina: Birth canal, receives sperm.

Fertilisation: Egg + Sperm → Zygote (in

fallopian tube).
Embryo development:

 Zygote → Embryo → Foetus (in uterus).

 Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) studied pea
Chapter – Heredity plants and discovered basic laws of inheritance.

Mendel’s Experiments
Introduction
 Crossed tall × short pea plants.
 Reproduction produces new individuals o F1 generation: All tall (dominant
similar to parents but with subtle trait expressed).
differences. o F2 generation: Ratio 3 tall : 1
 Variations arise naturally → Some help short.
organisms survive better in changing o Conclusion: Traits are controlled
environments. by factors (genes) present in pairs.
 Sexual reproduction produces more  Crossed pea plants with two traits (seed
variations than asexual. shape & colour).
 Variations form the basis of evolution. o Found traits are
inherited independently.
1. Accumulation of Variation o Ratio in F2 → 9:3:3:1.
During Reproduction

 Inheritance: Each generation inherits a

common basic body design + subtle
changes.
 Asexual reproduction → Very little
variation (small DNA copy errors).
 Sexual reproduction → More variations
due to DNA mixing from two parents.
 Variations may help survival in changing
environments.
o Example: Heat-resistant bacteria
survive during heat waves.

Important line:
“Selection of variants by environmental factors
forms the basis for evolutionary processes.”

2. Heredity

 Definition: Transmission of characters

from parents to offspring.
 Governs similarities and differences in
traits.

2.1 Inherited Traits

 Traits are characteristics passed from one

generation to another.
 Example: Earlobe type (free vs attached).

2.2 Rules of Inheritance of Traits

(Mendel’s Contribution)
 Object Image Size Nature
Chapter – Light: Position Position
Reflection and Refraction At
infinity
At F Point, highly
diminished
Real,
inverted
Beyond C Between Diminished Real,
F&C inverted
🔹 Nature of Light At C At C Same size Real,
inverted
 Light travels in straight lines (rectilinear Between Beyond C Enlarged Real,
propagation). C&F inverted
 Sharp shadows prove straight-line travel. At F At ∞ No image -
 In higher studies: Between Behind Enlarged Virtual,
o Diffraction shows wave nature. P&F mirror erect
o Photoelectric effect shows particle
nature. 📌 Uses: torch, headlights, shaving mirror, dentist
o Quantum theory: light has dual mirror, solar furnaces.
nature (wave + particle).
Image Formation by Convex
1️⃣ Reflection of Light Mirror
Laws of Reflection Object Image Size Nature

∠i = ∠r (Angle of incidence = angle of

Position Position
 At At F, Point, Virtual,
reflection) infinity behind highly erect
 Incident ray, normal, and reflected ray lie mirror diminished
in the same plane. Between Between F Diminished Virtual,
infinity & & P, erect
Types of Mirrors P behind
mirror
 Plane Mirror:
o Image: virtual, erect, same size, 📌 Uses: Rear-view mirrors in vehicles (wider
laterally inverted. field, erect images).
 Spherical Mirrors:
o Concave (curved inward). Sign Conventions (New Cartesian)
o Convex (curved outward).
 Object always left of mirror.
Important Terms  Distances right (+ve), left (–ve).
 Heights up (+ve), down (–ve).
 Pole (P): Centre of mirror surface.
 Centre of Curvature (C): Centre of Mirror Formula
sphere of which mirror is part.
Radius of Curvature (R): Distance PC. 1 1 1
 = +
 Principal Axis: Line through P and C. f v u
 Principal Focus (F): Point where parallel
rays meet (concave) or appear to diverge Magnification
(convex). h −v
'

 Focal Length (f): PF, related as R = 2f. m= =

h u
 Aperture: Diameter of mirror’s reflecting
surface.  m<0: real image.
 m>0: virtual image.
Image Formation by Concave
Mirror
📘 Example: Convex mirror with R = 3 m, object Image Formation by Convex Lens
5 m away → Image virtual, erect, diminished at
Object Image Size Nature
1.15 m.
Position Position
2️⃣ Refraction of Light At ∞ At F2 Point, Real,
diminished inverted
Definition: Beyond Between Diminished Real,
2F1 F2 & 2F2 inverted
Bending of light when it passes from one At 2F1 At 2F2 Same Real,
transparent medium to another (due to change in inverted
speed). Between Beyond Enlarged Real,
F1 & 2F1 2F2 inverted
 Rarer → Denser: bends towards normal. At F1 ∞ - No
 Denser → Rarer: bends away from image
normal. Between Same Enlarged Virtual,
F1 & O side erect
📌 Examples: coin in water appears raised, broken
pencil effect, lemon in water looks bigger. Image Formation by Concave Lens

Laws of Refraction  Always virtual, erect, diminished,

between O and F1.
 Incident ray, refracted ray, and normal lie
in the same plane. Lens Formula
 Snell’s Law:
1 1 1
= −
sin i f v u
=constant
sin r
Magnification
Refractive Index h v
'
m= =
v1 c h u
n21= n=
v2 v
📘 Example: Concave lens f = –15 cm, image at –
10 cm → Object at –30 cm, magnification = +⅓
 Higher refractive index = optically (virtual, erect, reduced).
denser.
Power of a Lens
📘 Example: Speed of light in glass (n=1.5) →
c 100 1
v=
8
=2× 10 m/s. P= =
1.5 f (cm) f (m)

3️⃣ Refraction by Lenses  SI unit: Dioptre (D).

 Convex lens: +ve P.
Types of Lenses  Concave lens: –ve P.

 Convex (converging) – thicker in middle. 📘 Example: Lens of power +2 D → f = 50 cm.

 Concave (diverging) – thinner in middle.

Terms:

 Optical Centre (O).

 Principal Axis.
 Foci (F1, F2).
 Aperture.
Chapter – Human Eye
and Colourful World

10.1 The Human Eye (b) Hypermetropia (Far-

sightedness)
 Structure:
o Cornea → Transparent bulge, does  Cause: Nearby objects not seen clearly;
most refraction. image forms behind retina.
o Lens (Crystalline lens) → Fine  Reasons: Lens too flat OR eyeball too
adjustment, focuses light. small.
o Iris → Controls pupil size.  Correction: Convex lens (converging).
o Pupil → Regulates light entering
the eye.
o Retina → Light-sensitive
membrane, converts light →
electrical signals → brain (via optic
nerve).
o Eye ≈ spherical, ~2.3 cm diameter.

(c) Presbyopia

 Cause: Ageing → weak ciliary muscles,

less flexible lens → near point recedes.
 Correction: Bi-focal lenses (upper
Power of Accommodation
concave for far, lower convex for near).
 Other corrections: Contact lenses,
 Definition: Ability of the eye lens to surgery.
adjust focal length for clear vision of
objects at different distances.
🔹 10.3 Refraction of Light Through
 Near Point (least distance of distinct
vision): ~25 cm for young adults. a Prism
 Far Point: Infinity for normal eye.
 Cataract: Lens becomes cloudy →  A triangular prism refracts light twice
blindness → corrected by surgery. (air → glass, glass → air).
 Emergent ray bends at an angle to incident
🔹 10.2 Defects of Vision ray → angle of deviation (D).

(a) Myopia (Near-sightedness)

 Cause: Distant objects not seen clearly;

image forms in front of retina.
 Reasons: Lens too curved OR eyeball
elongated.
 Correction: Concave lens (diverging). 🔹 10.4 Dispersion of White Light

 Definition: Splitting of white light into

colours (VIBGYOR).
  Reason: Different colours bend at 🔹 10.6 Scattering of Light
different angles in a prism:
o Violet bends most, Red least.  Tyndall Effect: Scattering of light by fine
 Spectrum: Band of colours. particles → path of beam visible.
o Seen in: smoke-filled room, mist in
forest, sunlight through canopy.
 Colour depends on particle size:
o Fine particles → scatter blue.
o Larger particles → scatter
red/orange/white.

 Newton’s experiment: Applications:

o Used two prisms → recombined
spectrum → proved sunlight = 7  Blue colour of sky: Molecules scatter
colours. short λ (blue) > long λ (red).
o Without atmosphere → sky dark
(astronauts).
 Red sunsets & sunrises:
o At low Sun → light travels longer
→ blue scattered away →
red/orange dominates.
 Rainbow Formation: Water droplets act  Danger signals are red: Least scattered
as tiny prisms (refraction + internal by fog/smoke → visible from far.
reflection + dispersion).
📍 Diagram: Blue sky & red sunset explanation
(conceptual).

📝 Important Definitions

 Accommodation: Adjustment of focal

length by eye lens.
 Near Point: Closest distance of clear
🔹 10.5 Atmospheric Refraction vision (25 cm).
 Far Point: Farthest distance of clear
 Definition: Refraction of light by Earth’s vision (∞ for normal eye).
atmosphere (different densities).  Myopia: Near-sightedness, corrected by
 Phenomena explained: concave lens.
o Twinkling of stars: Starlight  Hypermetropia: Far-sightedness,
bends continuously, position corrected by convex lens.
fluctuates.  Presbyopia: Age-related loss of
o Planets don’t twinkle: Extended accommodation.
sources → variations cancel out.  Dispersion: Splitting of white light into
o Advance sunrise & delayed colours.
sunset: Sun appears ~2 min earlier,  Spectrum: Band of colours after
~2 min later dispersion.
 Tyndall Effect: Scattering of light by
colloidal particles.

🔹 Key Example Problems

 Myopia correction: If far point = 80 cm

→
 Lens focal length f = –80 cm, Power P = –  Unit: Volt (V). 1 V = 1 J work done per
1.25 D. coulomb.
 Presbyopia: Needs two lenses (concave  Voltmeter: Measures potential difference;
for distance, convex for near). connected in parallel.

📘 Example: Moving 2 C charge across 12 V →

Work = 24 J.

🔹 11.3 Circuit Symbols

 Standard symbols used (Table 11.1): Cell,

Battery, Switch, Ammeter, Voltmeter,
Resistor, Rheostat, etc.

🔹 11.4 Ohm’s Law

Chapter – Electricity  Statement: Current through a conductor is
directly proportional to potential difference
across its ends, if temperature is constant.

🔹 11.1 Electric Current and Circuit V ∝ I ⇒ V =IR

 Electric current (I): Rate of flow of  Resistance (R): Property of a conductor to

electric charge. resist charge flow.
o Unit: Ohm (Ω).
Q o 1 Ω = 1 V / 1 A.
I=
t
📘 Example: Bulb (1200 Ω) at 220 V → Current =
 Unit: Ampere (A) – 1 A = flow of 1 C 0.18 A.
charge in 1 s.
 1 Coulomb = charge of 6 ×10 18electrons. 📍 Graph: V–I graph is a straight line (Fig. 11.3).
 Conventional current: Direction opposite
to flow of electrons. 🔹 11.5 Factors Affecting
 Ammeter: Measures current; connected in Resistance
series.
 Electric circuit: Continuous closed path  Resistance of a conductor depends on:
for current. o Length (l): R ∝l
o Area of cross-section (A):
📘 Example: 0.5 A current flows for 10 min → R ∝1/ A
Charge = 300 C. o Material (resistivity ρ):

📍 Diagram: Fig. 11.1 – Simple circuit with cell, l

bulb, ammeter, key. R=ρ
A
🔹 11.2 Electric Potential and
 Resistivity (ρ): Characteristic property of
Potential Difference
material.
o Conductors: very low ρ (~10⁻⁸
 Definition: Work done to move a unit Ωm).
charge between two points. o Insulators: very high ρ (~10¹²–10¹⁷
Ωm).
W
V=
Q
📘 Example: Wire of 1 m, d=0.3 mm, R=26 Ω → ρ  Applications: Electric heater, toaster, iron,
= 1.84 × 10⁻⁶ Ωm (Manganese). bulb filament (tungsten), fuse.
 Fuse: Safety device; melts if current
📍 Diagram: Fig. 11.5 – Experiment for factors exceeds safe limit.
affecting resistance.
📘 Example: Iron consumes 840 W at 220 V →
🔹 11.6 Resistance of System of Current = 3.82 A, Resistance = 57.6 Ω.
Resistors
📍 Diagram: Fig. 11.13 – Heating in resistor.
(a) Series Combination
🔹 11.8 Electric Power
 Total resistance:
 Definition: Rate of consumption of
R s=R1 + R2 + R3 electrical energy.
2
 Current same through all; voltage divides. 2 V
P=VI =I R=
 Disadvantage: One fails → whole circuit R
breaks.
 Unit: Watt (W).
📘 Example: Lamp (20 Ω) + Conductor (4 Ω) in o 1 W = 1 A current at 1 V.
series with 6 V battery → Total R = 24 Ω, Current o Larger unit: Kilowatt (kW).
= 0.25 A.  Commercial Unit of Energy:

📍 Diagram: Fig. 11.6, 11.8 – Series resistors. 1 kWh =3.6 ×10 J

6

(b) Parallel Combination

📘 Example: Refrigerator 400 W, used 8 h/day for
30 days → 96 kWh → Cost = Rs. 288 at Rs.
 Reciprocal of equivalent resistance: 3/unit.
1 1 1 1
= + +
R p R 1 R 2 R3

 Voltage same across all; current divides.

 Advantage: Devices work independently,
resistance decreases.

📘 Example: R₁=5Ω, R₂=10Ω, R₃=30Ω with 12 V

→ Total current = 4 A, Rp = 3 Ω.

📍 Diagram: Fig. 11.7, 11.10, 11.11.

🔹 11.7 Heating Effect of Current

 Joule’s Law of Heating:

2
H=I Rt

Heat is directly proportional to:

 square of current (I²),

 resistance (R),
 time (t).
 o ∝ Current
Field strength:
Chapter – Magnetic 

o ∝ 1/Distance from conductor

Effect of Electric Current
Rule: Right-Hand Thumb Rule

🔹 Introduction  Thumb → current

 Fingers curling → magnetic field direction
 Electric current produces a magnetic
Example 12.1 – Horizontal wire east-west
effect.
direction:
 This was discovered by Hans Christian
Oersted (1820).
 Above wire → field anti-clockwise
 Electricity and magnetism are
 Below wire → field clockwise
interlinked phenomena.
 Example: deflection of a compass needle
(b) Circular Loop
near a current-carrying wire.
 Magnetic field lines are concentric near the
🔹 12.1 Magnetic Field and Field
wire.
Lines  At the centre, lines become almost

Field strength ∝ Current × Number of

straight.
Magnetic field: Region around a magnet where 
magnetic force can be experienced. turns (n).

 Compass needle = tiny magnet → aligns (c) Solenoid

itself with Earth’s magnetic field.
 Magnetic field lines: Imaginary lines used Definition: Coil of many turns of insulated copper
to represent the field. wire in cylindrical form.
Properties:  Inside solenoid → uniform magnetic
field (parallel straight lines).
 Field lines emerge from north pole and  One end behaves like north pole, other as
enter at south pole. south pole.
 Inside the magnet, direction is from south  Used to make electromagnets (iron core
→ north. inside solenoid).
 They form closed loops.
 Closer lines = stronger field. Diagram: Solenoid field lines (similar to a bar
 No two field lines cross each other. magnet).
Diagrams to learn: 🔹 12.3 Force on a Current-Carrying
Conductor in a Magnetic Field
 Bar magnet with iron filings aligning in
field lines.
 Compass method showing curved field  Current-carrying conductor experiences
lines. force in a magnetic field.
 Demonstrated using rod in horse-shoe
🔹 12.2 Magnetic Field due to a magnet (deflection observed).
 Direction depends on:
Current-Carrying Conductor
o Current direction
o Magnetic field direction
(a) Straight Conductor
Rule: Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule
 Current in wire produces concentric
circular field lines around it.
  Thumb → Force (motion)  Solenoid field resembles bar magnet.
 Forefinger → Magnetic field  Force on current-carrying conductor →
 Middle finger → Current Fleming’s left-hand rule.
 Domestic electricity → live, neutral, earth,
Example 12.2: Electron entering magnetic field fuse.
perpendicularly → deflected (force direction into
page).

🔹 12.4 Domestic Electric Circuits

 Household supply: 220 V, 50 Hz AC.

 Wires:
o Live (Red)
o Neutral (Black)
o Earth (Green) → safety measure
 Circuits:
o 15 A → heavy appliances (geysers,
AC)
o 5 A → bulbs, fans

Electric Fuse:

 Protects from short circuiting &

overloading.
 Fuse wire melts → breaks circuit.

Overloading causes:

 Too many appliances on one socket

 Short circuit (live touches neutral)
 Sudden voltage hike

Diagram: Domestic wiring (live, neutral, earth

connections, fuse).

🔹 Applications & Uses

 Electromagnets: Motors, cranes.

 MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging):
Magnetic fields from nerve impulses used
in medical imaging.
 Generators, loudspeakers, microphones
→ rely on current + magnetism
interaction.

🔹 What You Have Learnt (Key

Points)

 Current produces magnetic field.

 Magnetic field direction → Right-hand
thumb rule.
 down dead organisms into inorganic
Chapter – Our substances → recycle nutrients.

Environment Important Line: Without decomposers, garbage

and dead matter would keep piling, and soil would
not get replenished naturally.

🔹 Introduction 🔹 13.1.1 Food Chains and Food

Webs
 Environment = Everything that
surrounds us (living + non-living). Food Chain (Definition):
 Human activities are disturbing the natural 👉 A series of organisms where each one is eaten
balance → environmental issues. by the next.
 This chapter explains ecosystems, food
chains, energy flow, ozone depletion,  Trophic level: Each step in a food chain.
and waste disposal. o 1st trophic level → Producers
o 2nd trophic level → Primary
🔹 13.1 Ecosystem – What are its consumers (herbivores)
o 3rd trophic level → Secondary
Components?
consumers (small carnivores)
o 4th trophic level → Tertiary
Definition: consumers (top carnivores)
👉 Ecosystem = Interaction of all organisms
(plants, animals, microorganisms, humans) with Flow of Energy:
their physical surroundings.
It consists of:  Solar energy captured by producers →
passed to consumers → decomposers.
 Biotic components → living (plants,  Energy transfer is unidirectional (does not
animals, decomposers). return).
 Abiotic components → non-living (soil,  10% Law: Only 10% of energy is passed
air, water, temperature, minerals, sunlight). from one trophic level to the next.
o Example: Plants (1000 J) → Deer
Examples: (100 J) → Lion (10 J).
 Due to energy loss, food chains are usually
 Natural ecosystems: Forests, ponds, limited to 3–4 levels.
lakes.
 Artificial ecosystems: Gardens, crop- Food Web:
fields, aquariums. 👉 Interconnection of many food chains in an
ecosystem.
Components of an ecosystem:
🔹 Biological Magnification
 Producers (autotrophs): Green plants,
some bacteria. They prepare food using ● Definition: Gradual increase in the
photosynthesis. concentration of harmful chemicals (like
 Consumers (heterotrophs): Depend on pesticides, DDT) at successive trophic levels.
producers. ● Non-biodegradable pesticides enter soil/water
o Herbivores (cow, deer) → absorbed by plants → passed to animals →
o Carnivores (lion, frog) highest in humans (top consumers).
o Omnivores (humans, bears) ● Example: Pesticide residues found in grains,
o Parasites (lice, tapeworm) fruits, vegetables, and meat.
 Decomposers (saprophytes):
Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi). Break
Important Line: Humans at the top of food chain  Aquarium experiment: Shows balance of
suffer the maximum accumulation of toxic producers, consumers, decomposers.
chemicals.  Food chain example:
o Grass → Grasshopper → Frog →
🔹 13.2 How Do Our Activities Snake → Eagle
Affect the Environment?  Waste disposal: Comparing plastic cups,
clay cups, paper cups.
(a) Ozone Layer and its Depletion o Paper cups better → biodegradable.

● Ozone (O₃): Molecule of 3 oxygen atoms.

● Found in stratosphere → absorbs harmful UV
radiation.
● Formation reaction:
❑
O2 → O+O ; O+ O2 → O3

● Importance: Protects life from skin cancer,

eye damage, reduced immunity.
● Depletion cause: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
used in refrigerators, ACs, fire extinguishers.
● Solution: 1987 UNEP Montreal Protocol →
freeze CFC production → now CFC-free
refrigerators.

(b) Managing Waste

Types of Wastes:

● Biodegradable: Broken down by

microorganisms.
o Examples: Food waste, paper, cotton,
leaves.
o Effect: Recycled into nutrients but
excess → bad odour, pollution.
● Non-biodegradable: Not broken down by
microbes.
o Examples: Plastics, glass, metals,
pesticides.
o Effect: Persist long, pollute soil &
water, toxic to organisms.

Problems of Waste Disposal:

 Accumulation of garbage.
 Water pollution from untreated sewage &
industrial waste.
 Plastic → blocks drains, harms animals,
soil fertility loss.
 Hazardous e-waste (batteries, electronics)
→ heavy metal poisoning.

🔹 Important Examples & Activities