Electronic Principles & Circuits (EPC)
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Linear opamp circuits
Summing amplifier circuits
The subtracter
Figure 20.21 shows a circuit that subtract two input voltages to produce an output voltage
equal to the difference of v1 and v2.
Here how it works: input v1 drives an inverter with a voltage gain of unity. The output of first
stage amplifier is –v1. This voltage is one of the inputs to the second stage summing circuit.
The other input is v2. Since the gain of each channel is unity, the final output voltage is
equals v1 minus v2.
i.e Vout = v1-v2
Summing on both inputs
The Averager
D/A Converter
In digital electronics, a digital-to-analog (D/A) converter takes a binary represented value and
converts it into a voltage or current. This voltage or current will be proportional to the input
binary value. There are two methods of D/A conversion often used.
1. The binary Weighted D/A converter
2. R/2R ladder D/A converter
The binary Weighted D/A converter
When viewed on an oscilloscope the output voltage of the D/A converter will look like the
negative going staircase shown in figure 20.24b.
R/2R ladder D/A converter
The R/2R ladder D/A converter shown in figure 20.25 which is 4-bit D/A converter.
The binary input switches D0-D3 connects 4 inputs to either ground (logic 0) or +Vref (logic
1). The ladder converts binary values from 0000 through 1111 to one of 16 unique output
voltage levels. In the D/A converter shown in figure 20.25 D0 is least significant bit and D3
is most significant bit.
Nonlinear Opamp Circuits
Comparators with zero reference
Non inverting Comparator
The simplest way to build a comparator is connect an op-amp without feedback resistor ash
shown in figure 22.1a. Due to high open loop gain +ve input produces +ve saturation and –ve
input produce the –ve saturation.
The comparator of figure 22.1a is called zero crossing detector because the output voltage
ideally switches from low to high and high to low whenever the input voltage crosses zero as
shown in figure 22.1b the input and output response. The minimum input voltage that
produces saturation is.
Inverting comparator
In inverting comparator the input signal to be compare is applied to the inverting
terminal and non inverting terminal input is grounded shown in figure 22.2a. in this case, a
slightly positive input voltage produces a maximum negative output as shown in figure 22.2b.
On the other hand, a slightly negative input voltage produces a maximum positive output as
shown in figure 22.2b.
The two diode clamps at the input terminal are used to protect comparator against
excessively large input voltage. For some comparator maximum input voltage rating may be
as little as +5 to -5 volts. Hence with these two diode clamps here we are maintaining input
voltage +0.7 to -0.7 volts.
Comparator with non zero references
In some applications a threshold voltage different from zero may be preferred. In
figure 22.11a voltage divider produces the following reference voltage for the inverting input
When Vin is greater than Vref, the differential input voltage is +ve and the output
voltage is high. When Vin is less than Vref, the differential input voltage is negative and the
output voltage is low.
The bypass capacitor is typically used on the inverting input to reduces the amount of
power supply ripple and other noise appearing at the inverting input. The cutoff frequency of
this bypass circuit is
Figure 22.11b shows the transfer characteristic (input/outpu response ). The trip point
is now equal to Vref. When Vin is greater than Vref the output of comparator goes into +ve
saturation. When Vin is less than Vref the output goes –ve satruation.
If –ve reference is preferred connect –VEE to the voltage divider as shown in figure
22.11c. The Figure 22.11d shows the transfer characteristic (input/outpu response ). The trip
point is now equal to -Vref. When Vin more +ve than the Vref the output of comparator goes
into +ve saturation. When Vin is more -ve than Vref the output goes –ve satruation.
Comparators with Hyteresis
When the input voltage increased slightly more than +BVsat then ouput voltage switch from
+ve to –ve as shown in figure 22.8b. Output voltage remains –ve untill the input voltage
becomes more –ve than –Bvsat. Then the output switches from –ve to +ve.
Oscillator
Theory of Oscillations
To build a sinusoidal oscillator, we need amplifier with +ve feedback. The idea is to use the
feedback signal in place of the input signal. If the feedback is large with correct phase, there
will be output oscillations without external input signal.
The Wien Bridge Oscillator
Working of Wien Bridge Oscillator
RC Phase Shift Oscillator
The Colpitts Oscillator
Hartley Oscillator
Crystal Oscillator
The 555 Timer
Monostable Operation
The formula for pulse width generated by monostable
Astable Operation
The figure 23.37 shows the schematic diagram for astable 555 circuit.