International Conventions/Regimes on Climate Change
i. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
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● dopted:9 May 1992
● Venue (Adoption & Opening for Signature):UN Headquarters, New York;Rio de Janeiro,
Earth Summit:3–14 June 1992
● Entry into Force:21 March 1994
● Explanation:Thefoundational global treaty on climate change, establishing a framework
for international cooperation to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations to prevent dangerous
human interference with the climate system. It set up the annualConference of the Parties
(COP)to negotiate targets and policies.
ii. Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC
● dopted:11 December 1997
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● Venue:Kyoto, Japan
● Entry into Force:16 February 2005
● Explanation:Thefirst legally binding climate treaty, the Kyoto Protocol required
developed (Annex I) countriesto reduce greenhouse gas emissions by specified targets
below 1990 levels. It established market mechanisms likeEmissions Trading,Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM), andJoint Implementation.
iii. Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol
● dopted:8 December 2012
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● Venue:Doha, Qatar
● Entered into Force:31 December 2020 (end of second commitment period)
● Explanation:Extended the Kyoto Protocol with asecond commitment period(2013–2020)
and updated emissions targets. However, not all parties ratified it.
iv. Paris Agreement (under the UNFCCC)
● dopted:12 December 2015
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● Venue:COP21, Paris, France
● Opened for Signature:22 April 2016, UN Headquarters, New York
● Entry into Force:4 November 2016
● Explanation:A landmark climate treaty where almostall countriescommitted toNationally
Determined Contributions (NDCs)to limit global warming — aimingwell below 2°C
above pre-industrial levels and pursue1.5°C. It represents abottom-up approachto
emissions mitigation and adaptation reporting.
v. Glasgow Climate Pact
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● inalized:13 November 2021
● Venue:COP26, Glasgow, Scotland (United Kingdom)
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xplanation:ACOP decision(not a separate treaty) that reaffirmed commitments under the
Paris Agreement and included the first global plan to“phase down” unabated coal power. It
represents evolving international consensus on fossil fuel reduction.
vi. Copenhagen Accord
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● dopted:18 December 2009
● Venue:COP15, Copenhagen, Denmark
● Explanation:Apolitical agreementrecognizing the scientific basis for limiting warming to
below 2°Cand calling for international cooperation on mitigation and finance. It served as a
transitional arrangementbetween Kyoto and the Paris framework, but wasnon-binding.
vii. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
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● dopted:16 September 1987
● Venue:Montreal, Canada (under theVienna Convention for Protection of the Ozone
Layer)
● Entry into Force:1 January 1989 (original treaty)
● Explanation:Although primarily designed to protect theozone layerby phasing out
ozone-depleting substances (ODS), the treaty hasmajor climate benefitsbecause many HFC
replacements are potent greenhouse gases.
viii. Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol
● dopted:15 October 2016
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● Venue:Kigali, Rwanda
● Entry into Force:1 January 2019
● Explanation:Addshydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)(powerful greenhouse gases used in
cooling systems) to the Montreal Protocol’s regulatory scope, committing parties tophase
down HFCsglobally. It is considered asignificant climate actionwithin an ozone regime.
Other Notable COP Outcomes (Not Separate Treaties but Key Regimes)
These COP decisions shape climate governance under the UNFCCC/Paris processes.
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● arrakesh Accords(2001, COP7): Operational rules for Kyoto mechanisms.
● Warsaw Mechanism for Loss and Damage(2013, COP19): Focuses on climate loss &
damage support.
Summary Table
Regime / Treaty Adopted Venue Entry into Brief Purpose
Date Force
UNFCCC 9 May 1992 Rio/New York 1 Mar
2 limate cooperation
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1994 framework
Kyoto Protocol 1 Dec
1 Kyoto, Japan 6 Feb
1 inding emission targets
B
1997 2005 (Annex I)
oha
D 8 Dec 2012 Doha, Qatar 1 Dec
3 Extended Kyoto targets
Amendment 2020
Paris Agreement 1
2 Dec Paris, France 4 Nov 2016 U
niversal NDCs on
2015 mitigation & adaptation
openhagen
C 8 Dec
1 openhagen,
C — on-binding political accord
N
Accord 2009 Denmark on 2°C
lasgow Climate 1
G 3 Nov Glasgow, UK — OP decision strengthening
C
Pact 2021 Paris outcomes
ontreal
M 6 Sep
1 Montreal, Canada 1 Jan 1989 hase out ozone-depleting
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Protocol 1987 substances
igali
K 5 Oct
1 Kigali, Rwanda 1 Jan 2019 hase down HFCs (climate
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Amendment 2016 benefit)
Note on COP Conferences
OP meetings (e.g., COP1 Berlin, COP21 Paris, COP26 Glasgow) serve asnegotiation forums
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where climate agreements are adopted — but they arenot themselves treatiesunless a specific
agreement text is finalized at that meeting. Some of the important COP conferences are as follows:
COP ear
Y Venue Outcome
Dec 1–11,
COP-3 Kyoto, Japan Adopted theKyoto Protocol,
1997
Nov 30 – Dec
COP-21 Paris, France Paris Agreement,
12, 2015
Oct 31– Nov
COP-26 12, Glasgow, UK Glasgow Climate Pact,
2021
November 6 – S harm el-Sheikh,
COP-27 Loss and Damage Fund
18,2022 Egypt
Nov 30 – Dec
COP-28 Dubai UAE Consensus
12, 2023
November 11 Climate Finance Goalat least$300 billion
COP-29 Baku, Azerbaijan
– 22, 2024 annually to developing countries by 2035.
newNationally Determined Contributions
November 10
COP-30 Belém, Brazil (NDCs) that are fully aligned with the 1.5°C
– 21, 2025
temperature limit.
Biodiversity
iodiversity means thevariety of living things on Earth. It refers todifferent plants,
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animals, insects, birds, and microorganisms, and the ecosystems where they live (forests,
oceans, deserts, etc.).
Why it is important:
● Keeps naturebalanced
● Providesfood, medicine, clean air and water
● Helps ecosystems surviveclimate change and diseases
Example:
A forest with many types of trees, animals, birds, and insects hashigh biodiversity.
Wetlands
etlands areareas where land is covered with watereither permanently or for some part of
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the year. Wetlands are places likemarshes, swamps, lakes, riversides, and mangroves
where water stays for a long time.
Why they are important:
● Act asnatural water filters
● Reducefloods
● Provide habitat forfish and birds
● Storecarbonand help fight climate change
Example:
Mangrove forests near the sea arewetlands.
Desertification
esertification is the process by whichfertile land turns into desert. It happens whenland
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becomes dry, barren, and unproductive.
Main causes:
● Deforestation (cutting trees)
● Overgrazing by animals
● Climate change and drought
● Poor farming practices
Effects:
● Loss of farmland
● Food shortages
● Poverty and migration
Example:
Green land slowly turning into sand due to lack of rain and misuse isdesertification.
Carbon Credits
carbon credit is apermit that allows the emission of a certain amount of carbon
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dioxide (CO₂). It is a system wherepolluters pay for pollution, and those who reduce
pollution canearn money.
How it works:
● 1 carbon credit =1 ton of CO₂ reduced or removed
● Companies that emit less cansell credits
● Companies that emit more mustbuy credits
Purpose:
● Reduce greenhouse gas emissions
Encourage clean energy and tree plantation
●
Example:
A factory planting trees or using solar energy can earncarbon credits.
Ongoing Environmental Negotiations – Timeline & 2030
Goals
1. UN Climate Change Negotiations (UNFCCC / COP Process)
📅 Timeline
● 1 992– UNFCCC adopted (Rio Earth Summit)
● 1997– Kyoto Protocol
● 2015– Paris Agreement
● Every year– COP meetings (latest in 2025, next in 2026)
🎯 Goals by 2030
Limit global temperature rise to1.5°C – 2°C
●
● Countries to submitstronger climate plans (NDCs)
● Increaseclimate financefor developing countries
● Supportadaptation(floods, heatwaves, droughts)
● OperationalizeLoss and Damage Fund
📌Status:Negotiations are ongoing because current actions arenot enoughto meet
temperature goals.
2. Global Plastics Treaty Negotiations (UN INC Process)
📅 Timeline
2 022– UN agreed to create a global plastics treaty
●
● 2022–2026– Negotiating sessions (INC meetings)
● Target:Final treaty adoption expected soon
🎯 Goals by 2030
Reduceplastic pollutionon land and in oceans
●
● Controlplastic production
● Improverecycling and waste management
● Ban or restrictharmful plastic products
● Support developing countries with finance & technology
📌Status:Talks ongoing due to disagreements on production limits and responsibilities.
3. Biodiversity Negotiations (Convention on Biological Diversity – CBD)
📅 Timeline
1 992– CBD adopted
●
● 2022– Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework
● 2024–2026– COP meetings to finalize rules and funding
🎯 Goals by 2030 (Very Important)
● rotect30% of land and oceans(“30 by 30” target)
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● Stopspecies extinction
● Restore degraded ecosystems
● Reduce harmful subsidies
● Mobilizebiodiversity finance
📌Status:Countries are still negotiatingfunding, monitoring and reporting systems.
4. Desertification Negotiations (UNCCD)
📅 Timeline
1 994– UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
●
● Every 2 years– COP meetings
● Ongoing discussionson land restoration
🎯 Goals by 2030
AchieveLand Degradation Neutrality (LDN)
●
● Restore degraded land
● Prevent soil erosion and drought damage
● Improve food security
● Support dryland communities
📌Status:Implementation ongoing, especially in Africa and Asia.
5. Wetlands Negotiations (Ramsar Convention)
📅 Timeline
1 971– Ramsar Convention adopted
●
● COP meetings every 3 years
● Continuous updates to wetland protection lists
🎯 Goals by 2030
Stop loss of wetlands
●
● Restore degraded wetlands
● Use wetlandswisely and sustainably
● Protect water birds and aquatic life
● Improve flood control and water quality
📌Status:Countries are encouraged to add moreRamsar sitesand protect existing ones.
6. Carbon Markets & Carbon Credits (Article 6 of Paris Agreement)
📅 Timeline
2 015– Paris Agreement adopted
●
● 2021–2024– Rules for carbon markets negotiated
● Ongoing– Implementation discussions
🎯 Goals by 2030
Createtransparent global carbon markets
●
● Reduce global emissions cost-effectively
● Support green projects in developing countries
● Preventdouble countingof emissions reductions
📌Status:Technical rules are still being refined.
🧭 ONE-PAGE SUMMARY TABLE
Negotiation Main Focus Goal by 2030
UNFCCC / COP Climate change Limit warming to 1.5°C
Plastics Treaty Plastic pollution End plastic pollution
CBD Biodiversity Protect 30% of Earth
UNCCD Desertification Restore degraded land
Ramsar Wetlands Stop wetland loss
Carbon Markets Emissions trading Lower global emissions
👉
All these negotiations aim toprotect the environment, reduce pollution, save nature,
and ensure a safe future— but talks continue because countries differ onmoney,
responsibility, and timelines.