Structure Theory

Reasons for Structures

 Structures provide protection and shelter.

Examples:

A snail (fig.1) is a small example of a structure that provides shelter and protection for an animal.

A tent (fig.2) is an example of a man made structure that provides shelter

and protection.

 Structures support loads.

Examples:

The spider's web (fig.3) is a natural structure that must support the load of the spider itself and the

prey that it trapped.

A bicycle (fig.4) is a man made structure that supports a load.

 Structures provide containment.

Examples:

A storage-truck is a man made structure that contains objects.

necessarily be only one type of structure. It is possible that some structures could be a combination

of different types of structures.

 Shell structures

A shell is a hollow structure, which could bear substantial loads, contain, support and protect

something. Fish tanks and post-boxes are examples of shell structures.

 Frame structures

Frames are useful in structures where strength and lightness are essential. A bicycle frame) is

made of tubes arranged in triangles. Often bridges and pylons are constructed similarly using

rigid steel strips in particular arrangements to add strength and rigidity to the structure. The Eiffel

Tower in Paris is an excellent example of a frame structure.

 Mass / Solid structures

A mass or solid structure is made up almost entirely of matter. In practice, mass structures are

reinforced in some way to add to its strength; e.g., inserting steel rods when beams are cast further

strengthen reinforced concrete beams. Ceramic tiles, some metal castings, walls ;dam walls

and the Pyramids in Egypt are examples of mass structures.

In making decisions about type of structure, materials and dimensions, there are three critical

factors to consider.

1. Strength

The structure must not fracture or collapse when in use.

2. Rigidity

The structure must resist bending, buckling, twisting or distorting in shape when loaded.

3. Stability

The structure must not fall over.

Strength of a structure

Strength is a familiar concept to all of us but we need to know exactly what it means in Technology.

The strength of a structure is the strength of the material from which it is made. This is the resistance

of the material to fracture when force is applied to it.

 Force

Force is an effect that a body experiences as something that pulls or pushes it

 Newton

A Newton is the unit by which force is measured. It is abbreviated as N. A force of strength 1 Newton

is approximately equal to the weight (the force of gravity) on a 100 gram mass.

Experience a 1N force, when next in a shop. Hold a 100g slab of chocolate in your hand and

feel the “heaviness” of this packet. This is 1N.

In Technology, a force applied to a body or a structure is called a load. When the body is subject to

the force, it is loaded (fig.16).

Different types of load:

Static loads

These are loads that build up gradually over time, or with small active effects. Since structural

analysis for static loads is much simpler than for dynamic loads.

Dynamic loads

These are loads that display large active effects.

 Stress

The concentration of force over an area is called the stress in the material.

The rod and the wire (fig.17) do not each have the same cross-sectional area. The internal force

caused by the load, is the same in both but is spread over different cross-sectional areas. The force

within the wire is more concentrated than the force within the rod

STRESS = LOAD

AREA

Load: the greater the load on an object, the greater will be the stress in the material.

Area: the smaller the cross-sectional area the greater will be the stress in the material.
NB: It is the stress in the material and not the load applied on an object, that

determines whether it will fracture or not.

Unit of Stress

The Pascal (Pa) is a force of 1 Newton acting over an area of 1m2 in a material. One Pascal is an

extremely weak stress. In reality, Technologists use the Mega Pascal (MPa), which is a million times

the stress of a Pascal (1 Newton over an area of 1mm2).

Types of stress:

A material can be stressed in three ways:

 Tensile Stress:

Tensile stress causes tension in material.

 Compressive Stress:

Compressive stress causes compression in material

 Shear stress :

Stretching of material.

 Torsion stress :

Twisting of material.
Rigidity of Structures

Not only must structures be strong enough to carry the load they must be rigid.

Making H-bars (fig.26), T-bars or angle–iron makes metal beams more rigid

Scoring and folding a piece of card in corrugations (fig.27) makes a rigid beam

Ways of strengthening structures rigid are:

1) Triangulation (fig.28)

Triangulation is to design and make the framework with the members joined to form

triangles

2) Gussets (fig.29)

Gussets are plates that are attached at the joints of the framework.

3) Tie

The part of the structure that has a tensile force acting on it is

called a TIE

4) Strut

The part that has a compressive force acting on it is called a

STRUT.

Stability of Structures

Put simply, a stable structure is one that will not fall over when in use.

Stable equilibrium - An object that returns to the starting position when pressure is applied.

Unstable equilibrium - An object that falls over when pressure is applied.

The point, at which the pull of gravity (weight) acting to the left and to the right of a point is equal, is

known as the centre of gravity of that object.

Centre of gravity & Pivotal Point

This means that as long as the centre of gravity rises (fig.30), the object is in stable equilibrium. Once
the centre of gravity starts to lower (fig.32), the object is in unstable equilibrium.

Some guidelines for making structures stable:

 must be as low as possible