Lesson 5: ● In order to distinguish the good and the bad,

we have to consider reason alone

THE ACT ● Moral assessment are emotional reactions
● He held that moral decisions would always
● No one can deny the fact that when the human involve feelings or emotions
person is placed in moral dilemma, his ● Moral sentiments are found in all people
decisions can also be greatly affected by his ● Everyone has an instinctive capacity to give
feelings praise and uphold the moral actions
● The moral decision that man makes will performed by a person to the others
definitely not be fully objective ● He held that whatever actions that would give
● Moral decision can be a product of feelings or the spectator a pleasing sentiment would be
emotions considered as morally acceptable, while those
● Philosophers during the time of Hume placed that would be unpleasing to the spectators
greater emphasis on the prominence of reason would be considered morally unacceptable
over feelings ● Agreeableness and usefulness can be a good
● According to the religious apologists, moral consideration of morality
decisions must be rooted in religious laws and ● Interest should not be for one’s own but for
doctrines somebody else’s, that is, for the interest of
● Western philosophers were actually reacting those who would be directly or indirectly
to the position held by the church scholars affected by a particular action
who asserted that religion is a necessary ● Empirical approach to morality – our moral
foundation of morality decisions are based not on judgements based
● For the western thinkers, the foundation of on reason but on feelings
morality is reason ● Our experience tells us that we have
sympathetic feelings of pleasure and pain in
PLATO response to a range of virtuous characteristics
that people possess, at the same time,
● He argued that the function of reason is to rule everyone would have an agreement on the
the appetites and emotions virtuous qualities that can be considered
● Held that the Mind or the Intellect, which is the usefulness or agreeable to those who are
highest level of the soul, is that immortal part affected by one’s action
of the soul that gives the man the capacity for ● Hume believed that feelings and
truth and wisdom agreeableness can be considered as a clear
criterion of moral judgement
STOICS ● He believed that a behavior is considered to be
virtuous if it is useful or agreeable to people
● They believed that the human person must be who are affected by the action being
able to learn to control his passion with reason considered
in order to live a moral life
● They believed that each person shares a REASON AND IMPARTIALITY : THOMAS NAGEL
common element: reason – because every
man has reason, everyone, therefore, has a ● He believed that morality must be rooted not in
right reason in common. This right reason is feelings or emotions because that will make
Law. Hence, moral decisions must always be morality subjective, morality must be
rooted on the right reason as this is the thing objective– it must be rooted in reason
that we have in common with the gods ● No matter how great our feelings on a
particular situation can be, such feelings will
RENE DESCARTES not be considered as a basis for universal
moral principle because my feelings on a
● In his desire to get away from the authority of particular issue may be different from the
the church, he held that reason has feelings of others
prominence over church laws and religious ● Our feelings may be irrational
doctrines ● They may be products of prejudice,
● In the matter of morality, reason must have the selfishness, or cultural conditioning
prevalence ● One’s moral decision may depend on the
effect of one’s action to the person’s involved
DAVID HUME: FEELINGS AND MORALITY ● The basis of morality must be on the
happiness that one’s action may cause to
● During the early part of his philosophizing, he others. If an action is going to cause harm to
believed virtue is in conformity to reason others, then the action is considered to be evil
● Morality is discern merely by ideas
 ● Reason will tell us that everyone should be ● The followers of this philosophy look at the
treated equally happy life in terms of having the most possible
● Discovering the truth can only be made pleasure and the least possible pain
possible if one is guided by reason
● Aristippus is considered to be the great
● The morally right thing to do is to do the action
that is supported by rational argument – moral follower of this school and the founder of this
judgements must always be backed up with philosophy
good reasons
● But it must be noted that not every reason is Aristippus
good. There may still be valid reasons.
However, it will be the job of the person to ● He believed that life is basically a search for
discern which reason is good. It is therefore,
pleasure.
important to know the facts first. At the same
time, the person must take away any ● He considered pleasure as always good
prejudices regardless of its source.
● It is important that a person should try to look ● Because all people seek pleasure, whether
at things according to how they are and not on they are aware of it or not, it should, therefore,
how they wanted them to be. be considered the basis of goodness People
● In discerning the facts, it is important that the will always be led to the fact that the meaning
decision maker must be impartial to certain
of life is a pleasure
issues. One should be able to consider that
every moral decision is equally important to
the others Aristippus: Sensual Pleasure
● Impartiality is only a bare outline of morality
● Ethics begin when from the impersonal ● Because pleasure is the natural goal of all life,
standpoint we focus on the raw data provided we should try to have as much intense sensual
by the individual desires, interests, projects, pleasure as we can Physical pleasure is the
attachments, allegiances, and plans of life that
best of all other things because it makes life
define the personal points of view of the
multitude of distinct individuals, ourselves more exciting, dynamic and worth living
included ● He believed that it is better to desire for the
● Morality must be the reason pleasure of the present because the future
might not even come
8 STEPS TO MORAL REASONING ● People should be happy at all cost
● Gather the facts ● "Eat, drink, and be merry today for tomorrow
● Define the ethical issues
you may die"
● Review relevant ethical guidelines
● Obtain consultation
● List the alternative courses of action The Epicurean Philosophy: Epicurus of Samos
● Compare the alternatives with the principles
● Weigh the consequences ● He was a practical philosopher
● Make a decision ● He believed that philosophy is important
because it may help the human person to free
Lesson 6: The Epicurean Ethics
himself from ignorance and superstitions
Man's Search for Pleasure ● He considered philosophy as the medicine of
the soul this is because ideas are capable of
● The main reason why Ethics is given great controlling and developing one's life
consideration is the fact that every human ● The chief aim of human life is pleasure
person is searching for happiness
● It is believed that in order to obtain happiness, Epicurean Philosophy
it is necessary that man must live an ethical
life ● He believed that people are only accidental
products of the collision of atoms just like any
The Hedonist Philosophy other beings
● The main aim of his philosophizing is on how
● Hedonism is the general term for any to banish from people the fear if the gods,
philosophy that says that pleasure is good and which, for him, would be preventive of the
pain is evil people's acquisition of happiness
 pleasure. Inasmuch as every human being
Epicurean Philosophy fiinds pleasure to be good; hence, pleasure
becomes the gauge in determining the
● He thought that he was able to liberate goodness of a human action
humanity from the fear of God and from the
fear of death Types of Pleasure
● He believed that God did not have the control
over nature nor over human destiny he would ● Both natural and necessary - food
not be able to intrude in the affairs of the ● Natural but not necessary - sex
people ● Neither natural nor necessary - luxurious life
● Death should not also bother anyone because
only a living person would have the feeling of Epicurus held that real happiness could be obtained by
either pleasure or pain this feeling of pleasure means of those activities that will free human being
and pain would not be felt anymore after our from troubles of the mind and from physical pain
death
What leads to a real pleasant life is the austere
The Duty of the Human Person reasoning that will aid man to the true realization of the
meaning of life and the avoidance of the greatest
● It is believed that the only thing that is disturbance of the spirit brought about by mere
important in life is one's own pleasure opinions
● For Epicurus, neither life nor death is good or
bad in itself Pleasure Principle
● Only the quality of our pleasures or pains is
important ● People should determine the minimum desire,
● One should not seek to have the most of which nature is requiring the body
anything, including the longest possible ● People should be able to easily determine
lifespan, the wise and sophisticated what it is that will satisfy him
Epicureans chooses to have the finest ● When the needs of the human body are
satisfied, it is only then that nature's physical
The Duty of Human Person will be balanced. Moreover, aside from
consuming only a little of what the human
● According to Epicurus, all those things that the person desires, he or she will need only little of
human person will find to be valuable are his needs
valuable because it gives a sense of pleasure
to the human person. However, his view on The Self-Centered Moral Philosophy
pleasure is somehow sophisticated because
he still recommended a virtuous and ● The concern of his philosophy is the
moderately ascetic life as the best means of attainment of pleasure of the self
securing pleasure ● According to him, the height of pleasure is
● The highest pleasure are intellectual, and the freedom from all pains and getting rid of all
greatest good is peace of mind discomforts in both body and the mind
● The things that will bring pleasure to every
The Duty of Human Person person are those that will free them from
troubled minds, that is, from the fear of God,
● He believed that human beings have the power from the fear of death, and from the fear of
and the duty to regulate one's own desires pain
● Every individual can control his own life this is
because every human being is capable of Moral Philosophy
reasoning, and hence, capable of
distinguishing the good from the bad The aim of life is the attainment of pleasure, the pursuit
● Epicurus upheld that pleasure is the standard of that which brought happiness the final goal of every
of goodness - this is because human beings person
have the capacity to always desire for
Pleasure can be obtained personally by self-control, - Flattery, fashion, and convention destroy the
that is, the mastery and limitation of desires as far as individual and make everyone vulnerable to the whims
possible to those that were strictly necessary of fortune.
- Happiness could not be obtained by means of
Basic Guide to Epicurean Living pleasure.
- They believed that luxury always brings
1. Do not fear God complications and eventually to great frustrations.
2. Do not worry about death - Pleasure should not be sought after if one will be
3. Do not fear pain aiming for happiness– they held instead that happiness
4. Live a simple life can come from self- discipline, rational control of all
5 Pursue pleasure wisely desires and appetites, and minimal contact with
6. Make friends and be a good friend conventional society.
7. Be honest in your business and private life
8. Avoid pain and physical ambition The Stoic Philosophers
1. ZENO OF CITIUM
Lesson 7: The Ethics of STOICISM - Known founder of Stoicism.
- He was originally from a Phoenician who came to
CYNICISM: The Origin of Stoic Philosophy Athens as a young man in order to study philosophy.
- Is a philosophical school that revolted against the - He studied under the Cynic philosopher Crates –
rigidly ordered philosophies of Plato and Aristotle. according to history, in order for Zeno to overcome his
- It was said to have been founded by Antisthenes, attachment to social convention, Crates would publicly
who took Socrates as a model for the Stoics – it was embarrass Zeno by smashing a pot he was carrying, so
believed that he had to walk almost five (5) miles covering him with lentils.
everyday to hear Socrates. - Although this may not be good at first glance,
- Impressed by the lifestyle of Socrates, Antisthenes through such kinds of experiences Zeno was able to
sought to follow both the life and philosophy of inherit the Cynic’s distrust of social niceties, which
Socrates; Socrates’ disdain for fashion, his ragged but Zeno regarded as irrational.
functional clothing, lack of shoes, ability to not sleep or - This experience led him to establish the Stoic
eat for long periods, his physical toughness and school of philosophy, which was named after the
forthright honesty made a tremendous impression on portico, or what they called the painted porch.
the young Cynic. - The said portico was used by Zeno as a place
CYNICISM where he could have his lectures. Hence the philosophy
- After the death of Socrates, Antisthenes founded a of Zeno came to be known as Stoicism.
school called the Cynosarges (the Silver Dog) - Stoicism is essentially as system of ethics, which
- The term Cynic is the Greek word for dog. Later on, however, is guided by logic as a theory of method, and
one student of Antisthenes, Diogenes of Sinope was rests upon physics as its foundations.
labeled as the cynic because it was said that he lived - Their notion of morality is stern, involving a life in
like a dog, that is, he was unwashed and rough-looking, accordance with nature and controlled by virtue.
scrounging for food, and refusing to follow the - The stoics believed that both pain and pleasure,
conventional standard of dress and behavior. poverty and luxury, sickness and health, were supposed
- Inasmuch as Antisthenes attended some lectures to be equally unimportant.
of Gorgias, an epistemological nihilist, and because he
stayed so close to Socrates, he was greatly influenced 2. EPICTETUS
by the stinging attacks on such sophistic values as - Although the Stoic school was founded in Greece,
power, prestige, wealth, and clever deception. it flourished in Rome.
- The Cynics believed the that very essence of - Through Alexander the Great, Greece was able to
civilization is corrupt. conquer the Persian empire.
- Manners, according to them, are hypocritical and - It was for this reason that Greece was able to
phony. establish its power over a large area of the near East
- They also believed that material wealth weakens and Egypt.
the people and makes them physically and morally soft. - Eventually, Greek culture became more
- The desire for such success and power produces sophisticated and cosmopolitan, absorbing ideas and
dishonesty and dependency. customs from the cultures it conquered.
- As the Greek empire expanded, the importance of - The Stoics believe that happiness could not be
individual city-states, such as Athens and Sparta, found in pleasure. Instead, the Stoics tend to look for
diminished, and people identified themselves as part of happiness in wisdom. – such wisdom, will be the
a larger, more international community. means in order to control what has been within the
- When Alexander died, his empire began to fall human power and to accept with dignified resignation
apart. By the middle of the 2nd century BCE, Rome had what had to be.
destroyed what was left of Alexander’s kingdom and - The Stoics believed in fate and destiny. According
annexed Greece as a Roman province called Achaia. to them, it is indeed impossible to control what will
- Given their interest in establishing social order, the happen in the future. However, it is also useless to fear
Romans were especially attracted to the Stoics the future because they will happen anyway whether we
emphasis on duty and self – control. like it or not.
- Epictetus reflected on the major issue of Stoicism: - Instead of fearing for the future, people should
controlling what we can and accepting what is beyond learn to control the attitude towards what will happen.
our control. In this regard, we have nothing to fear but fear itself. --
- His motto in life : Bear and forbear. control one’s attitude.
- Not much is known about Epictetus’ life except - Even though the Stoics believe in fate and destiny,
that his mother was a slave living in Hierapolis. It was they also talk about choosing appropriate actions, in
said that he was brought to Rome as the slave of a addition to just controlling our attitudes. – People have
former slave named Epaphroditus, who must be Nero’s at least some degree of influence over his actions.
administrative secretary. Probably due to his unusual - For the Stoics, the world was so arranged that
abilities, Epaphroditus sent Epictetus to study with everything on it was acting on the principle of purpose.
Musonius Rufus, the most powerful Stoic since the They saw throughout all of nature the operation of
days of Zeno. reason and law.
- According to them, there was a rational substance
The Philosophy of the Stoics that is existing in the whole nature. This rational
- The Stoic philosophy centers on the ethical living; substance is the Logos. From the guidance of this
its ethical teachings centers on two (2) principles: the logos, the universe remains rational and ordered. Stoic
universe is governed by absolute law; the essential philosophers considered this logos as the Theos, or
nature of the human person is the reason. – live God, the Absolute Reason.
according to nature - Inasmuch as God is reason, it follows that the
- It means that the human persons should conform world is governed by reason. – (1) it means there is a
themselves to nature in the wider sense, that is, to the purpose in the world, and therefore, there is order,
laws of the universe; and that they should conform their harmony, beauty, and design. (2) since reason is law,
actions to nature in the narrower sense, that is, to their the universe is governed by the rigorous necessity of
own essential nature – reason. cause and effect.
- Life according to reason. - Every individual therefore, is not free and there can
- Morality for Zeno, is simply rational action. be no freedom of the will in a world that is governed by
- Morality is a universal reason, which is to govern necessity.
our lives, not the caprice of the self-will of the
individual. – in this sense, a person is said to be wise if The Human Drama
he will subordinate his life to the life of the whole - Stoicism rests on the simple insight that the world
universe, and recognize himself as a gear in the great is like a stage where every person is an actor or actress.
machine that without which, this said great machine In this drama, they believe that each actor had hid own
will not be able to function. role to play. There are people who will play only a small
- Natural order of the universe, which included the role, while there are others who are tasked to play lead
process of change, and was, at the same time divine. roles.
- Although the natural order of the universe is - The Stoics held that actors do not have any control
considered as divine, the human person is capable of over the story. The only thing that the actors can control
understanding its divinity as well as its laws through is their attitudes and emotions. In this regard, it is
reason possessed by all human person. necessary that each individual actors should be able to
- The aim of the Stoics is the attainment of know their individual roles to play.
happiness.
Human Drama (Situation)
- By knowing the role to play, they eventually acquire - These passions and emotions are irrational
wisdom in dealing life. For this reason, human wisdom elements or vices and must, therefore, be eradicated in
consists only in recognizing in tis drama of life and order to complete the domination of reason and to
performing the part well. avoid every surprise.
- They also believe that the Divine Providence - Stoic morality is focused on an absolute
governs everything that happens in the world. –if the renunciation of things.
situation will arise that a person sees that his son is in - The Stoic renounces all the temporal goods
danger of drowning, it will definitely be the duty of the because these cause disturbance of the mind.
parent to save his son. However, if he fails to save the - Since the Stoic does not believe in the immortality
child after doing everything that he must do, then he of the soul, such complete renunciation can be made
must accept his failure without any remorse and only for a selfish motive so as not to lose the tranquility
without the feeling of guilt, and thereby, without of the spirit.
diminishing his happiness.
Stoic Morality : JUSTICE
Human Drama - The Stoic held that there is a great connection
- The author of human drama governs everything between god and all the people, as well as the people
that happens. And so, his failure must have been for the among each other because everyone is sharing a
best as it is according to the script set by the director, common possession: reason. Because everyone has
even though the human person cannot understand why reason, they, therefore have also the right reason in
these this are happening. common. But this right reason is Law. In this case, all
- For the Stoics, moral virtue, is the only good, and men have this Law in common with the gods.
wickedness is the only evil. - Those who share law must also share justice, and
- In this case, the child’s death is not an evil itself. those who share justice are to be regarded as member
There is nothing, therefore, for the virtuous person to of the same commonwealth. It is for this reason that it
regret since in being virtuous, he must already done his became inevitable for the Stoics to develop a strong
best. notion of cosmopolitanism, that is, the idea that all
person is actin on universal brotherhood.
The Stoic Morality - Every human person is equal to one another.
- The foundation of Stoic morality is a doctrine that Therefore, depriving others of their rights is against the
has its own basis in physics, that is, in the nature of concept of cosmopolitanism; hence, morally
living beings. DOCTRINE OF OIKEIOSIS – orientation unacceptable.
and appropriation.
- The basic desire of all living beings, including Stoic Morality
human beings, is for self- preservation. The one thing - The Stoics put their chief concern upon the
that is most important to human persons is our own practical concerns of ethics. They regard self-control as
existence and its continuation. People choose what the center of ethics and they view all of nature in
they think will be good for them and avoid what they materialistic terms.
think will be bad for them. This seemingly selfish - One may consider Stoicism as a mature
attitude is the basis of the Stoics ethics. philosophy because its appeal seems to increase in
experience. For the Stoics, growing up emotionally and
Stoic Morality : VIRTUE philosophically involves adopting realistic expectations
- The Stoic held that people should ;earn to live in and accepting one’s limits.
accordance with nature. Living in agreement with - The Stoics considered hardships and sufferings as
nature is equivalent to living according to virtue. not totally negative. The goal is not really to avoid the
- For the Stoics, virtue means living according to trials and sufferings but to use them to become a good
reason, and reason tells us that all that happens must person.
happen in order to actuate a superior good willed by the - While making reasonable efforts to get what we
Divine Nature. In this regard, a human person is virtuous want, it is wise to learn to be happy with what we get.
if he wishes that those events that will happen will be
according to the will of the Divine Providence.

Stoic Morality : PASSION AND EMOTION