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LIFE PROCESSES

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Introduction to Life Processes

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●​ Life processes are fundamental activities performed by living organisms to maintain

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and sustain life. These processes are essential for the survival of an organism,
ensuring its growth, development, repair, and reproduction.

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●​ All living organisms, from the simplest bacteria to complex human beings,
continuously perform these processes. These maintenance functions of living

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organisms go on even when they are not doing anything specific.
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Key characteristics of Life Processes:

●​ Continuous Nature: They occur constantly throughout the life of an organism.

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●​ Essential for Survival: Without them, an organism cannot survive.

●​ Interconnectedness: These processes are not isolated but are interconnected and
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interdependent. For example, nutrition provides energy for respiration, which in turn
facilitates transportation.
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●​ Energy Requirement: All life processes require energy, which is obtained through
nutrition and released through respiration.
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●​ Molecular Movement: The maintenance of living structures requires continuous

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movement of molecules, which is facilitated by these processes.

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Characteristics of Living Beings

Living beings exhibit several defining characteristics that distinguish them from non-living
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things. These characteristics are the macroscopic manifestations of the underlying life
processes.

●​ Movement: Living organisms show movement, which can be external (like walking)
or internal (like the movement of blood). Plants show movement at a cellular level,
like growth.
●​ Growth: An irreversible increase in the size, mass, or number of cells of an organism.
●​ Nutrition: The process of taking in food and converting it into energy and other vital
nutrients required for life.
●​ Respiration: The process of breaking down food molecules to release energy.
●​ Excretion: The removal of metabolic waste products from the body.
 ●​ Reproduction: The process by which living organisms produce new individuals of
their own kind, ensuring the continuity of life.
●​ Sensitivity/Irritability: The ability of organisms to sense and respond to stimuli from
their environment.
●​ Metabolism: The sum total of all chemical reactions occurring within a living
organism. This includes anabolism (building up of complex substances) and
catabolism (breaking down of complex substances).

Basic Needs of Living Organisms

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To perform life processes efficiently and to survive, all living organisms have certain

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fundamental requirements:

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●​ Food (Nutrition): Provides energy for various life activities and raw materials for

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growth and repair.
●​ Water: Essential for metabolic reactions, transport of substances, and maintaining

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body temperature.
●​ Oxygen: Required for aerobic respiration to release energy from food.

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●​ Shelter/Space: A suitable environment to live and carry out life activities.
●​ Favorable Temperature: Most life processes occur optimally within a specific
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temperature range.
●​ Waste Removal: Elimination of harmful metabolic by-products.
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Commonly Asked Board Exam Questions (Introduction)

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1.​ What are life processes? Why are they essential for the survival of an organism?
2.​ List any four characteristics that distinguish living beings from non-living things.
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3.​ "The maintenance functions of living organisms go on even when they are not doing
anything specific." Justify this statement with an example.
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4.​ Why is the movement of molecules important for life?

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Nutrition
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●​ Nutrition is the process of taking in food and converting it into energy and other vital
nutrients required for life. It involves the ingestion, digestion, absorption,
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assimilation, and egestion of food.

●​ The food consumed provides energy for various metabolic activities, raw materials for
growth and repair of tissues, and regulates body functions.

Modes of Nutrition

Living organisms obtain their food in different ways, leading to two major modes of
nutrition:
A. Autotrophic Nutrition

The mode of nutrition in which organisms synthesize their own food from simple inorganic
substances like carbon dioxide and water, using an external source of energy (usually
sunlight). These organisms are called autotrophs (auto = self, trophos = nourishment).
Examples: Green plants, algae, and some bacteria.

Sub-types of Autotrophic Nutrition:

1.​ Photoautotrophic Nutrition (Photosynthesis):

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○​ Organisms use light energy to synthesize food. This is the most common type

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of autotrophic nutrition.
○​ Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants and some other organisms

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use sunlight to synthesize nutrients from carbon dioxide and water. In plants,

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this process occurs in the chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll.
2.​ Balanced Chemical Equation for Photosynthesis:

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3.​ Raw Materials for Photosynthesis:
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○​ Carbon Dioxide (CO2​): Taken from the atmosphere through small pores
called stomata present on the surface of leaves. The guard cells regulate the
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opening and closing of stomata.

○​ Water (H2​O): Absorbed from the soil by the roots and transported to the
leaves via the xylem vessels.
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○​ Sunlight: The energy source, absorbed by chlorophyll.

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○​ Chlorophyll: The green pigment present in chloroplasts that traps solar

energy.
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4.​ Site of Photosynthesis:​

Chloroplasts: These are specialized organelles found primarily in the mesophyll cells
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of plant leaves.
5.​ Significance of Photosynthesis:
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○​ Food Production: It is the primary source of food for almost all living
organisms, either directly (herbivores) or indirectly (carnivores, omnivores).
○​ Oxygen Release: It releases oxygen as a by-product, which is essential for the
respiration of most living organisms.
○​ Energy Flow: It initiates the flow of energy in nearly all ecosystems by
converting solar energy into chemical energy.
○​ Carbon Cycle: It plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance of carbon
dioxide and oxygen in the atmosphere.
○​ Fossil Fuels: The fossil fuels (coal, petroleum) we use today are products of
ancient photosynthetic activity.
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B. Heterotrophic Nutrition

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The mode of nutrition in which organisms obtain food from other organisms, either plants or

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animals, because they cannot synthesize their own food. These organisms are called
heterotrophs (heteros = other, trophos = nourishment).

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Examples: Animals, fungi, most bacteria.

Sub-types of Heterotrophic Nutrition:

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1.​ Saprotrophic Nutrition (Saprotrophs/Saprotrophs):
1.​ Organisms obtain nutrients from dead and decaying organic matter.
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2.​ They release digestive enzymes outside their body onto the dead matter, digest
it externally, and then absorb the simpler digested molecules.
3.​ Examples: Fungi (e.g., bread mold, mushrooms, yeast), some bacteria.
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4.​ Ecological Role: Decomposers – they play a crucial role in nutrient cycling by
breaking down complex organic substances into simpler inorganic forms,
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returning them to the soil.

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2.​ Parasitic Nutrition (Parasites):

1.​ Organisms (parasites) obtain nourishment from another living organism (host)
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without killing it, often harming the host in the process.

2.​ The parasite lives on or in the body of the host.
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3.​ Examples:
■​ Plant Parasites: Cuscuta (Dodder plant - grows on other plants,
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deriving nutrition without chlorophyll), mistletoe.

■​ Animal Parasites: Lice, ticks (external parasites); tapeworms,
roundworms, Plasmodium (malaria parasite - internal parasites).
3.​ Holozoic Nutrition (Holozoic Organisms):
1.​ The mode of nutrition involves the ingestion of solid or liquid organic food, its
digestion, absorption, and assimilation. Undigested food is egested.
2.​ This is the most common mode of nutrition in animals.
3.​ Steps involved:
■​ Ingestion: Taking food into the body.
■​ Digestion: Breaking down complex food substances into simpler,
soluble forms.
 ■​ Absorption: Taking in digested food into the blood or lymph.
■​ Assimilation: Utilization of absorbed food by body cells for energy,
growth, and repair.
■​ Egestion: Removal of undigested food materials from the body.
4.​ Holozoic Nutrition in Amoeba (Unicellular Organism):​
Amoeba is a unicellular protozoan that exhibits holozoic nutrition. It has no
specialized digestive organs.
■​ Ingestion: Amoeba ingests food particles (like bacteria, algae) using
temporary finger-like projections called pseudopodia (false feet). The
pseudopodia engulf the food particle, forming a food vacuole around

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it. This process is called phagocytosis.
■​ Digestion: Digestive enzymes are secreted into the food vacuole from

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the cytoplasm. These enzymes break down complex food substances
into simpler, soluble molecules.

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■​ Absorption: The digested food diffuses out of the food vacuole into
the surrounding cytoplasm, where it is assimilated.

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■​ Assimilation: The absorbed food is used for obtaining energy, growth,
and repair
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■​ Egestion: The undigested waste material remains in the food vacuole.
This vacuole then moves to the surface of the cell, fuses with the cell
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membrane, and the undigested waste is expelled out of the body.
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5.​ Holozoic Nutrition in Humans (Multicellular Organism - Human Digestive

System):​
The human digestive system is a complex system involving a long muscular tube
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called the alimentary canal and several associated digestive glands.

6.​ A. Alimentary Canal (Digestive Tract):​
The alimentary canal is a continuous tube extending from the mouth to the anus,
specialized for the digestion and absorption of food. Its approximate length in an adult
human is 9 meters.​
Parts of the Alimentary Canal and their functions:
1.​ Mouth (Buccal Cavity):
■​ Ingestion: Food is taken in.
■​ Mechanical Digestion: Teeth chew and grind food (mastication).
■​ Dental Formula (Adult): 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, 3
molars in each quadrant of the jaw (2123/2123). Total 32 teeth.
 ■​ Chemical Digestion (partial): Salivary glands secrete saliva, which
contains:
■​ Salivary Amylase (Ptyalin): An enzyme that breaks down
complex carbohydrates (starch) into simpler sugars (maltose).
■​ Mucus: Lubricates food for easy swallowing.
■​ Tongue: Mixes food with saliva and helps in swallowing.
■​ Food is converted into a soft mass called bolus.

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2.​ Pharynx:

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■​ A common passage for food and air.

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■​ Connects the mouth to the esophagus and nasal cavity to the larynx.
■​ Epiglottis: A flap-like cartilage that prevents food from entering the

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trachea (windpipe) during swallowing.

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3.​ Esophagus (Food Pipe):
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■​ A muscular tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach.
■​ No digestion occurs here.
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■​ Peristalsis: Rhythmic waves of muscular contractions that push the
bolus down towards the stomach. This involuntary action ensures food
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moves in one direction regardless of body position.

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4.​ Stomach:
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■​ A J-shaped muscular bag located in the upper abdomen.

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■​ Storage: Stores food for several hours (3-4 hours).

■​ Mechanical Digestion: Churning movements of muscular walls
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further mix food.

■​ Chemical Digestion: Gastric glands in the stomach wall secrete
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gastric juice, which contains:

■​ Hydrochloric Acid (HCl):
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■​ Makes the medium acidic (pH 1.5-3.5) for the action of

pepsin.
■​ Kills bacteria ingested with food.
■​ Activates inactive pepsinogen into active pepsin.
■​ Pepsin: A protein-digesting enzyme that breaks down proteins
into simpler peptides.
■​ Mucus: Protects the inner lining of the stomach from the
corrosive action of HCl and pepsin.
■​ Food in the stomach, mixed with gastric juice, is called chyme.
■​ The pyloric sphincter muscle regulates the release of chyme into the
small intestine.
 5.​ Small Intestine:
■​ The longest part of the alimentary canal (approx. 6.5 meters long in
adults).
■​ Site of complete digestion and major absorption of food.
■​ Receives secretions from the liver (bile) and pancreas (pancreatic
juice), in addition to its own intestinal juice.
■​ Three parts:
■​ Duodenum: First, C-shaped part, receives bile duct and
pancreatic duct.
■​ Jejunum: Middle part.

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■​ Ileum: Last and longest part, highly coiled.

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6.​ Digestion in the Small Intestine:
■​ Carbohydrates: Complex carbohydrates are finally broken down into

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glucose.
■​ Proteins: Peptides are broken down into amino acids.

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■​ Fats: Fats are emulsified by bile and then broken down into fatty acids
and glycerol.
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7.​ Absorption in the Small Intestine:

■​ The inner lining of the small intestine has millions of tiny finger-like
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projections called villi (singular: villus).

■​ Villi:
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■​ Greatly increase the surface area for absorption.

■​ Are richly supplied with blood vessels and lymph vessels
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(lacteals).
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■​ Digested food (glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol,

vitamins, minerals) passes through the thin walls of the villi
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into the blood capillaries and lacteals.

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8.​ Large Intestine:

■​ Wider and shorter than the small intestine (approx. 1.5 meters long).
■​ No digestion occurs here.
■​ Functions:
■​ Water Absorption: Absorbs most of the remaining water from
the undigested food material.
■​ Formation and Storage of Feces: Forms solid feces from the
undigested waste.
■​ Parts: Cecum, colon (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid),
rectum.
 ■​ Rectum: Stores undigested waste (feces) temporarily.
9.​ Anus:
■​ The terminal opening of the alimentary canal.
■​ Egestion/Defecation: Undigested waste is expelled from the body
through the anus, regulated by the anal sphincter muscles.

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B. Associated Digestive Glands:​

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These glands are not part of the alimentary canal but secrete digestive juices that aid
in digestion.
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10.​Salivary Glands:
■​ Location: In and around the mouth (Parotid, Submandibular,
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Sublingual).
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■​ Secretion: Saliva.
■​ Enzyme: Salivary Amylase (Ptyalin).
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■​ Function: Digestion of starch.

11.​Liver:
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■​ Location: Largest gland in the body, located in the upper right

abdomen.
■​ Secretion: Bile (produced by liver cells, stored in the gallbladder).
■​ Function of Bile:
■​ Emulsification of Fats: Breaks down large fat globules into
smaller ones, increasing surface area for lipase action. (This is a
physical digestion process, not chemical).
■​ Alkaline Medium: Makes the acidic chyme from the stomach
alkaline, providing the optimal pH for pancreatic and intestinal
enzymes to act.
■​ Other functions (not directly digestive but important):
Detoxification, storage of glycogen, synthesis of plasma proteins, etc.
 12.​Pancreas:
■​ Location: Behind the stomach.
■​ Secretion: Pancreatic juice.
■​ Enzymes in Pancreatic Juice:
■​ Pancreatic Amylase: Continues the digestion of
carbohydrates.
■​ Trypsin: Digests proteins (activated from inactive trypsinogen
by enterokinase in the small intestine).
■​ Lipase: Digests emulsified fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
■​ Endocrine Function: Secretes hormones insulin and glucagon, which

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regulate blood sugar.

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Table: Summary of Digestive Enzymes and their Actions

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Enzyme Source Gland/Organ Site of Action Substrate Product(s)

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Salivary Amylase Salivary Glands Mouth Starch Maltose (smaller

Pepsin
:9 sugars)
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Gastric Glands Stomach Proteins Peptides

Pancreatic Amylase Pancreas Small Starch Maltose

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Intestine
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Trypsin Pancreas Small Proteins/Pepti Peptides/Amino

Intestine des Acids
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Lipase Pancreas Small Emulsified Fatty Acids and

Intestine Fats Glycerol
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Maltase Intestinal Glands Small Maltose Glucose

Intestine
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Sucrase Intestinal Glands Small Sucrose Glucose and

Intestine Fructose
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Lactase Intestinal Glands Small Lactose Glucose and

Intestine Galactose

Peptidases Intestinal Glands Small Peptides Amino Acids

Intestine

Dental Caries and Tooth Decay

Dental Caries (Tooth Decay): The gradual softening of enamel and dentine due to the action
of acid-producing bacteria.
 ●​ Cause: Bacteria present in the mouth act on sugar and food particles clinging to the
teeth to produce acids.
●​ Process:
1.​ Plaque Formation: Food particles, bacteria, and saliva form a sticky layer
called dental plaque on the tooth surface.
2.​ Acid Production: Bacteria in the plaque ferment sugars to produce acids (e.g.,
lactic acid).
3.​ Demineralization: These acids demineralize the tooth enamel (the hardest
substance in the body, primarily calcium phosphate) and then the dentine,
creating cavities (holes).

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4.​ Pulp Involvement: If left untreated, the decay can reach the pulp cavity,
causing pain and infection.

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●​ Prevention: Regular brushing (twice a day), rinsing mouth after meals, and reducing
sugar intake.

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Commonly Asked Board Exam Questions (Nutrition)

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1.​ Differentiate between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition. Give one example of
each.
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2.​ Explain the process of photosynthesis, mentioning its raw materials, site, and
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products. Write the balanced chemical equation.
3.​ Describe the role of stomata in photosynthesis.
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4.​ Why is the small intestine in herbivores longer than in carnivores?

5.​ With a well-labelled diagram, describe the process of digestion in the human
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alimentary canal.
6.​ List the enzymes secreted by the pancreas and mention their functions.
7.​ How is the small intestine designed to absorb digested food?
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8.​ What is the role of HCl in the stomach? How is the stomach wall protected from its
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action?
9.​ Explain the process of nutrition in Amoeba with the help of suitable diagrams.
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10.​What are dental caries? How is it caused and prevented?

11.​State the function of bile juice. Where is it produced and stored?
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12.​Draw a neat and labelled diagram of the human digestive system.

13.​What is peristalsis? Where does it occur in the human digestive system?
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14.​Why is respiration considered an exothermic process?

Respiration

Respiration is a vital metabolic process that involves the oxidation of organic food substances
(like glucose) to release energy for various life activities. This energy is captured and stored
in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) molecules, which serve as the energy currency
of the cell. Respiration occurs continuously in all living cells of an organism.
Key characteristics of Respiration:

●​ Energy Release: Its primary purpose is to release energy from complex organic
molecules.
●​ Oxidation: It involves the breakdown of food molecules through oxidation.
●​ ATP Production: The released energy is stored in ATP, which can then be utilized for
cellular processes such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, protein
synthesis, and active transport.
●​ Cellular Process: Respiration occurs at the cellular level, primarily in the cytoplasm
and mitochondria.

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Difference between Respiration and Breathing

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Feature Breathing Respiration

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Definition The physical process of taking in The biochemical process of breaking
oxygen and expelling carbon down food (glucose) to release energy,

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dioxide. (Gaseous exchange) involving complex enzymatic reactions.

Nature

Location
A physical process.

Occurs in respiratory
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organs Occurs at the cellular level (cytoplasm

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(lungs, gills, skin, etc.). and mitochondria in eukaryotes).
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Energy No energy is released, rather some Energy is released and stored in the form
energy is spent during inhalation of ATP.
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and exhalation.

Enzymes No enzymes are involved. Numerous enzymes are involved to

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catalyze the various steps of glucose

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breakdown.
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Products Inhalation: Oxygen; Exhalation: Carbon Dioxide, Water, and Energy

Carbon Dioxide. (ATP).
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Types of Respiration
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Respiration can be broadly classified into two main types based on the presence or absence of
oxygen:

A. Aerobic Respiration

Aerobic respiration is the process of breaking down glucose in the presence of oxygen to
produce a large amount of energy, along with carbon dioxide and water. This is the most
efficient form of respiration and occurs in most living organisms.
 B. Anaerobic Respiration

Anaerobic respiration is the process of breaking down glucose in the absence of oxygen. It
produces a much smaller amount of energy compared to aerobic respiration, along with
different by-products.

Initial Step: Glycolysis (breakdown of glucose to pyruvate) is common to both aerobic and
anaerobic respiration and occurs in the cytoplasm.

Comparison Table: Aerobic Respiration vs. Anaerobic Respiration

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Feature Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

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Oxygen Presence Requires oxygen. Occurs in the absence of oxygen.

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Site Cytoplasm and Mitochondria Cytoplasm only.

Glucose Breakdown Complete breakdown :9 of Partial breakdown of glucose.

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glucose.
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Energy Release Large amount of energy is Small amount of energy released (2 ATP).
released (38 ATP).
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End Products Carbon dioxide (CO2​) and Ethanol and carbon dioxide (in yeast); Lactic
water (H2​O). acid (in muscle cells).
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Duration Continuous process in most Temporary (e.g., muscle cells during

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organisms. strenuous activity) or permanent (e.g., some

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bacteria, parasites).

Organisms Most plants and animals, some Yeast, some bacteria, parasitic worms, human
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bacteria. muscle cells (temporarily).

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Human Respiratory System

The human respiratory system is responsible for the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) between the body and the external environment.

Pathway of Air (Respiratory Tract):

1.​ Nostrils: External openings through which air enters. Lined with fine hairs and mucus
to filter dust and moisten/warm the air.
2.​ Nasal Passage: Leads from nostrils to pharynx.

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3.​ Pharynx: Common passage for food and air.

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4.​ Larynx (Voice Box): Contains vocal cords, responsible for sound production.
5.​ Trachea (Windpipe):

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○​ A tube extending down the neck into the chest cavity.

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○​ Supported by C-shaped cartilaginous rings, which prevent the trachea from
collapsing even when there is not much air in it.
○​ Divides into two primary bronchi.

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6.​ Bronchi (singular: Bronchus):
○​ Two tubes that branch off the trachea, each entering one lung.
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○​ Also supported by cartilaginous rings.
7.​ Bronchioles:
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○​ Bronchi further divide into smaller and smaller tubes called bronchioles.
○​ Lack cartilaginous rings.
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8.​ Alveoli (Air Sacs):

○​ Each bronchiole terminates into a cluster of tiny, balloon-like structures called
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alveoli.
○​ Structure: Extremely thin-walled (single cell thick), richly supplied with
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blood capillaries.
○​ Function: Primary site of gaseous exchange. Their large surface area
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maximizes diffusion.
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Lungs: The primary organs of respiration, located in the thoracic (chest) cavity, protected by
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the rib cage. Each lung contains millions of alveoli.

Diaphragm: A large, dome-shaped muscular structure located below the lungs, crucial for
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the mechanism of breathing.

Mechanism of Breathing (Ventilation)

Breathing involves two phases: Inhalation (taking in air) and Exhalation (expelling air).
These processes are driven by changes in pressure within the thoracic cavity, caused by the
movement of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
 1.​ Inhalation (Inspiration):
○​ Diaphragm: Contracts and flattens (moves downwards).
○​ Rib muscles (External Intercostals): Contract, pulling the rib cage upwards
and outwards.
○​ Volume Change: The volume of the thoracic cavity increases.
○​ Pressure Change: This increase in volume decreases the air pressure inside
the lungs (becomes lower than atmospheric pressure).
○​ Air Movement: Air rushes from the higher atmospheric pressure into the
lungs until the pressure inside and outside equalises.
2.​ Exhalation (Expiration):

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○​ Diaphragm: Relaxes and moves upwards to its original dome shape.
○​ Rib muscles (External Intercostals): Relax, causing the rib cage to move

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downwards and inwards.
○​ Volume Change: The volume of the thoracic cavity decreases.

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○​ Pressure Change: This decrease in volume increases the air pressure inside
the lungs (becomes higher than atmospheric pressure).

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○​ Air Movement: Air is forced out of the lungs until the pressure inside and
outside equalises.
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Transport of Gases
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●​ Oxygen Transport: Primarily transported by hemoglobin, a red pigment present in

red blood cells (RBCs). Hemoglobin binds reversibly with oxygen to form
oxyhemoglobin (HbO2​), and transports it from the lungs to the body tissues. A small
amount is dissolved in plasma.
●​ Carbon Dioxide Transport:
○​ Mostly transported in the blood as bicarbonate ions (HCO3−​) dissolved in
plasma.
○​ A small amount is transported bound to hemoglobin (as
carbaminohemoglobin).
○​ Some is dissolved directly in plasma.
 Respiration in Plants

Plants also respire, exchanging gases with their environment, though they do not have
specialized respiratory organs like animals. They obtain oxygen from the atmosphere and
release carbon dioxide, and vice-versa for photosynthesis.

●​ During the Day: Photosynthesis occurs, producing oxygen. Respiration also occurs,
consuming oxygen and producing carbon dioxide. Net gaseous exchange often shows
oxygen release.
●​ During the Night: Only respiration occurs. Oxygen is consumed, and carbon dioxide

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is released.

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Mechanisms of Gaseous Exchange in Plants:

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1.​ Stomata: Small pores on the surface of leaves (mostly on the lower epidermis). They

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are primarily for photosynthesis but also facilitate gaseous exchange during
respiration.

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2.​ Lenticels: Small pore-like openings on the bark of old stems and roots. They allow
for gaseous exchange in woody plants.
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3.​ General Surface: In young roots and stems, gases can diffuse through the general
surface.
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Key difference from animals: Plants do not transport gases over long distances. Each part of
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the plant (roots, stems, leaves) takes care of its own respiratory needs, often independently.
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Comparison: Respiration in Aquatic and Terrestrial Organisms

Feature Aquatic Organisms (e.g., Fish) Terrestrial Organisms (e.g., Humans)

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Respiratory Medium Water (dissolved oxygen). Air (gaseous oxygen).

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Oxygen Content Oxygen content in water is much Oxygen content in air is high.
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lower
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Breathing Rate Much faster to obtain sufficient Relatively slower.

oxygen.

Respiratory Organs Gills (highly vascularized, large Lungs (large surface area in alveoli for
surface area for efficient extraction of efficient extraction of gaseous oxygen).
dissolved oxygen).

Energy Expended More energy is expended in obtaining Less energy is expended in obtaining
oxygen due to higher resistance of oxygen.
water and lower oxygen concentration.
Commonly Asked Board Exam Questions (Respiration)

1.​ Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

2.​ What is the role of ATP in cellular processes?
3.​ Name the end products of glucose breakdown in (a) yeast and (b) human muscle cells
when there is insufficient oxygen.
4.​ Why are the walls of trachea supported by C-shaped cartilaginous rings?
5.​ Draw a neat and labelled diagram of the human respiratory system.
6.​ Describe the mechanism of breathing in humans.
7.​ How are alveoli designed to maximize gaseous exchange?

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8.​ Where does glycolysis occur in a cell? What is its main product?
9.​ Explain the role of diaphragm in the process of breathing.

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10.​How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?
11.​Why do aquatic organisms breathe faster than terrestrial organisms?

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12.​How do plants exchange gases? Where do these exchanges occur?

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Transportation (Circulation)

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Transportation (or circulation) is the life process by which substances absorbed or
synthesized in one part of the body are carried to other parts of the body where they are
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needed or where they need to be removed (as waste). This process ensures that nutrients,
oxygen, hormones, and waste products are effectively distributed and collected.
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Transportation in Plants
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Plants have a well-developed transport system consisting of specialized vascular tissues:

xylem and phloem. These tissues form a continuous network throughout the plant, from roots
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to leaves.
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A. Xylem (Water and Mineral Transport)

●​ Structure: Composed of tracheids, vessels (tracheary elements), xylem parenchyma,

and xylem fibers. Vessels and tracheids are hollow, dead, tube-like structures that
form a continuous network.
 ●​ Function: Transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots upwards to all parts
of the plant (stems, leaves, flowers, fruits). This upward movement is called the
ascension of sap.
●​ Driving Force: Transpiration Pull:
○​ Transpiration: The loss of water vapor from the aerial parts of the plant
(primarily through stomata in leaves).
○​ Mechanism:
■​ Water evaporates from the surface of mesophyll cells into the air
spaces in the leaf and then diffuses out through stomata.
■​ This creates a "pull" or suction force, known as transpiration pull, in

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the xylem vessels of the leaf.
■​ As water evaporates from the leaves, more water is pulled up from the

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roots, creating a continuous flow.
○​ Significance:

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■​ Helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals
from roots to leaves.

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■​ Helps in temperature regulation (evaporative cooling).

B. Phloem (Food Transport)

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●​ Structure: Composed of sieve tubes (main conducting elements), companion cells,
phloem parenchyma, and phloem fibers. Sieve tubes are living cells, but lack a
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nucleus at maturity. They are connected by sieve plates.

●​ Function: Transports synthesized food (sugars, primarily sucrose) from the leaves
(where photosynthesis occurs) to all other parts of the plant, including storage organs
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(roots, fruits, seeds) and growing regions. This process is called translocation.
●​ Direction of flow: Bi-directional (upwards or downwards) depending on the needs of
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the plant, unlike xylem which is primarily unidirectional (upwards).

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Feature Xylem Phloem

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Transported Substance Water and dissolved minerals. Food (sugars, primarily sucrose) and amino acids.
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Direction of Flow Unidirectional (mostly Bi-directional (upwards or downwards, from

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upwards from roots to aerial source to sink).

parts).

Energy (ATP) Mostly passive (except for Active transport (requires ATP for
initial root pressure). loading/unloading).

Components Tracheids, vessels, xylem Sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem

parenchyma, xylem fibers. parenchyma, phloem fibers.

Nature of Cells Mostly dead cells (except Living cells (sieve tubes are living but anucleate,
parenchyma). companion cells are living).
Transportation in Humans (Circulatory System)

The human circulatory system (also called the blood vascular system) is a closed, double
circulatory system responsible for transporting blood, which carries oxygen, nutrients,
hormones, and waste products throughout the body. It consists of the heart, blood, and blood
vessels.

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A. Components of Blood
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Blood is a fluid connective tissue that plays a vital role in transport and defense. It consists
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of:

1.​ Plasma:
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○​ Composition: Pale yellow fluid, mostly water (about 90%), dissolved proteins
(e.g., albumin, globulin, fibrinogen), glucose, amino acids, mineral salts,
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hormones, enzymes, and waste products (urea, uric acid).

○​ Function: Transports food, CO2​, nitrogenous wastes in dissolved form. Also
transports hormones and heat.
2.​ Red Blood Cells (RBCs) / Erythrocytes:
○​ Structure: Biconcave disc-shaped, enucleated (no nucleus in mature
mammals), red due to the presence of hemoglobin.
○​ Function: Primary function is the transport of oxygen (hemoglobin binds to
oxygen). Also transports a small amount of carbon dioxide.
○​ Production: Bone marrow.
 3.​ White Blood Cells (WBCs) / Leukocytes:
○​ Structure: Irregularly shaped, nucleated, colorless. Larger than RBCs, but
fewer in number.
○​ Types: Granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and Agranulocytes
(lymphocytes, monocytes).
○​ Function: Part of the immune system. Defend the body against infections by
engulfing foreign particles (phagocytosis) or producing antibodies.
4.​ Platelets / Thrombocytes:
○​ Structure: Small, irregular, anucleated cell fragments.
○​ Function: Crucial for blood clotting (coagulation) at the site of injury,

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preventing excessive blood loss.

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B. Blood Vessels

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These are a network of tubes that transport blood throughout the body.

1.​ Arteries:

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○​ Function: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to various body parts
(except pulmonary artery, which carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs).
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○​ Structure: Thick, elastic, muscular walls to withstand the high pressure of
blood pumped from the heart. Have a narrow lumen (internal cavity). No
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valves.
○​ Pulse: Blood flows in spurts, creating a palpable pulse.
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2.​ Veins:
○​ Function: Carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart from various body
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parts (except pulmonary veins, which carry oxygenated blood from lungs to
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heart).
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○​ Structure: Thin-walled, less muscular, and less elastic than arteries. Have a
wider lumen. Possess valves to prevent the backflow of blood, especially
against gravity.
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○​ Flow: Blood flows smoothly and under low pressure.

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3.​ Capillaries:
○​ Function: Form a microscopic network connecting arteries and veins. They
are the sites of exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products between blood
and body cells.
○​ Structure: Smallest blood vessels, with extremely thin walls (single cell
thick). This thinness facilitates efficient diffusion.
Feature Arteries Veins Capillaries

Function Carry blood away from Carry blood towards the Site of exchange between
the heart. heart. blood and tissues.

Blood Type Oxygenated (except Deoxygenated (except Both (gaseous exchange

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pulmonary artery). pulmonary veins). occurs across them).

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Wall Thickness Thick, muscular, elastic. Thin, less muscular, less Extremely thin (single cell

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elastic. thick).

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Lumen Narrow Wide Very narrow (only allow

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Valves Absent (except at the Present (to prevent Absent.

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origin of aorta and backflow).

pulmonary artery).
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Blood Pressure High. Low. Intermediate, gradually

decreasing.
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C. Human Heart
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The heart is a muscular, pumping organ located in the chest cavity, slightly to the left. It is
responsible for circulating blood throughout the body. It is enclosed in a protective
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double-walled membrane called the pericardium.

Structure of the Human Heart:

The human heart is four-chambered, which ensures the complete separation of oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood, allowing for a highly efficient supply of oxygen to the body. This
separation is crucial for warm-blooded animals (mammals and birds) that require more
energy to maintain their body temperature.

●​ Upper Chambers (Atria / Auricles):

○​ Right Atrium: Receives deoxygenated blood from the body (via superior and
inferior vena cava).
 ○​ Left Atrium: Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs (via pulmonary
veins).
○​ Atria have thinner, less muscular walls as they only pump blood to the
ventricles.
●​ Lower Chambers (Ventricles):
○​ Right Ventricle: Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs (via pulmonary
artery).
○​ Left Ventricle: Pumps oxygenated blood to all parts of the body (via aorta).
○​ Ventricles have thicker, highly muscular walls, especially the left ventricle, as
they pump blood to greater distances and under higher pressure.

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●​ Septum: A muscular wall that separates the right and left sides of the heart,
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preventing the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

●​ Valves: Flap-like structures that prevent the backflow of blood, ensuring
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unidirectional flow.
○​ Tricuspid valve: Between right atrium and right ventricle.
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○​ Bicuspid (Mitral) valve: Between left atrium and left ventricle.

○​ Semilunar valves: At the base of the aorta and pulmonary artery.
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Functioning of the Human Heart (Cardiac Cycle / Double Circulation):

The heart undergoes a rhythmic cycle of contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) to
pump blood. The complete cycle of contraction and relaxation of the heart chambers is called
the cardiac cycle.

The human circulatory system is a double circulation system, meaning blood passes through
the heart twice in one complete cycle of circulation. This consists of two distinct circuits:
 1.​ Pulmonary Circulation (Heart ↔ Lungs):
○​ Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the right atrium.
○​ From the right atrium, it flows into the right ventricle.
○​ The right ventricle pumps this deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary
artery, which carries it to the lungs.
○​ In the lungs (at the alveoli), gaseous exchange occurs: CO2​is released, and O2​
is taken up.
○​ Oxygenated blood from the lungs returns to the left atrium via the
pulmonary veins.
2.​ Systemic Circulation (Heart ↔ Body):

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○​ Oxygenated blood from the left atrium flows into the left ventricle.
○​ The left ventricle pumps this oxygenated blood into the aorta (the largest

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artery).
○​ The aorta branches into numerous arteries, distributing oxygenated blood to all

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parts of the body tissues.
○​ In the body tissues, gaseous exchange occurs: O2​ is given to cells, and CO2​is

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picked up.
○​ Deoxygenated blood from the body tissues returns to the right atrium via the
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vena cava (superior and inferior).
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Flowchart: Double Circulation
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Body (Deoxygenated Blood) → Vena Cava → Right Atrium → Right Ventricle →

Pulmonary Artery → Lungs (Oxygenation) → Pulmonary Vein → Left Atrium → Left
Ventricle → Aorta → Body (Oxygenated Blood)
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D. Lymphatic System
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The lymphatic system is a parallel circulatory system that complements the blood circulatory
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system.
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●​ Components:
1.​ Lymph: A colorless fluid, similar to plasma but with fewer proteins. Formed
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from tissue fluid that leaks out of blood capillaries.

2.​ Lymph Vessels: A network of vessels that collect lymph from the interstitial
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spaces and return it to the bloodstream (near the heart).

3.​ Lymph Nodes: Small, bean-shaped organs located along lymph vessels. They
filter lymph and contain lymphocytes (a type of WBC) that fight infection.
4.​ Lymphatic Organs: Spleen, thymus, tonsils.
●​ Functions:
1.​ Fluid Balance: Returns excess tissue fluid (interstitial fluid) back to the blood
circulation, preventing edema (swelling).
2.​ Fat Absorption: Absorbs digested fats from the small intestine (through
lacteals in villi) and transports them to the bloodstream.
3.​ Immunity: Part of the immune system; lymph nodes filter pathogens and
produce lymphocytes that defend against infection.
E. Blood Pressure

Blood pressure is the force that blood exerts against the walls of a blood vessel. It is
measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg).

●​ Systolic Pressure: The maximum pressure in the arteries during ventricular

contraction (systole). Normal value is around 120 mmHg.
●​ Diastolic Pressure: The minimum pressure in the arteries during ventricular
relaxation (diastole). Normal value is around 80 mmHg.
●​ Normal Blood Pressure: 120/80 mmHg.

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Hypertension (High Blood Pressure): Blood pressure above 140/90 mmHg is considered
hypertension. It can lead to rupture of arteries (internal bleeding) and heart diseases.

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Commonly Asked Board Exam Questions (Transportation)

1.​ What are the components of the transport system in highly organized plants? Explain

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the function of each.
2.​ Differentiate between xylem and phloem.

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3.​ Explain how transpiration helps in the upward movement of water in plants.
4.​ Describe the mechanism of translocation in plants.
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5.​ Draw a neat and labelled diagram of the human heart.
6.​ Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in mammals and
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birds?
7.​ Explain the double circulation in human beings. What is its significance?
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8.​ List the components of blood and mention one major function of each.
9.​ Differentiate between arteries, veins, and capillaries based on their structure and
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function.
10.​What are the functions of the lymphatic system?
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11.​What is blood pressure? What are systolic and diastolic pressures?

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12.​How does the structure of xylem tissue aid in the transport of water?
13.​Why do plants need a transport system?
EC

Excretion
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Excretion is the biological process of removing harmful metabolic waste products from the
body. These waste products, such as urea, uric acid, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and excess
salts, are produced during various metabolic reactions (e.g., respiration, protein metabolism)
and are toxic if allowed to accumulate.

Excretion in Plants

Plants do not have specialized excretory organs like animals. They have different strategies
for waste removal, as their metabolic rates are generally lower, and they produce fewer waste
products.
 1.​ Gaseous Wastes:
○​ Carbon Dioxide (CO2​) and Oxygen (O2​): Released through stomata
(leaves) and lenticels (stems). CO2​is a waste product of respiration, and O2​is
a waste product of photosynthesis.
2.​ Water:
○​ Excess water is removed through transpiration (loss of water vapor through
stomata).
○​ In some plants, water is excreted in liquid form through hydathodes (small
pores) on leaf margins, a process called guttation.
3.​ Solid and Liquid Wastes:

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○​ Storage in Vacuoles: Many waste products (e.g., resins, gums, tannins,
alkaloids, crystals) are stored in the cellular vacuoles of leaves, bark, or other

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plant parts, effectively isolating them from active metabolic processes.
○​ Falling Leaves/Bark: When leaves yellow and fall off, or when bark peels

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off, the accumulated waste products stored within them are removed from the
plant body.

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○​ Resins and Gums: Some waste products are excreted in the form of resins
(e.g., from pine trees) and gums (e.g., from acacia trees), especially from old
xylem.
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○​ Excretion into Soil: Some waste substances are excreted by roots into the
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surrounding soil.
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Excretion in Humans (Human Excretory System)

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The human excretory system, primarily involving the urinary system, is responsible for
filtering blood and forming urine to remove nitrogenous waste products.
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EC
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Components of the Human Excretory System:

1.​ Kidneys:
○​ Location: A pair of bean-shaped organs located in the abdomen, one on either
side of the backbone.
 ○​ Structure: Each kidney is composed of millions of microscopic filtering units
called nephrons.
○​ Function: Filter blood to remove nitrogenous waste products (urea, uric acid,
creatinine), regulate water balance, and maintain mineral and electrolyte
balance in the body.
2.​ Ureters:
○​ A pair of thin muscular tubes that emerge from each kidney.
○​ Function: Transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. Urine
moves through peristaltic movements.
3.​ Urinary Bladder:

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○​ A muscular, elastic sac located in the pelvic cavity.
○​ Function: Stores urine temporarily until it is expelled from the body. The

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bladder can hold about 300-600 ml of urine.
4.​ Urethra:

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○​ A tube that carries urine from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body.
○​ Its opening is guarded by a muscular sphincter (urethral sphincter) that

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controls urination (micturition).

Structure and Function of Nephron

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The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. Each kidney contains over a
million nephrons.
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Parts of a Nephron:

○​ Bowman's Capsule: A double-walled cup-shaped structure.

○​ Glomerulus: A tuft of capillaries present within the Bowman's [Link]
Tubule:
 ○​ Collecting Duct: A straight tube that collects urine from several nephrons and
carries it to the renal pelvis.

Summary of Urine Formation: Blood is filtered, essential substances are reabsorbed, and
additional wastes are secreted, resulting in the formation of urine.

Excretion of Urine: From the collecting ducts, urine flows into the renal pelvis, then down
the ureters to the urinary bladder. When the bladder is full, stretch receptors send signals to
the brain, leading to the urge to urinate. Urine is expelled through the urethra, a process
called micturition, controlled by sphincters.

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Artificial Kidney (Dialysis)

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●​ Definition: An artificial kidney (hemodialyzer) is a device used to filter the blood of a
person whose kidneys are failing. This process is called dialysis.

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●​ Need: In case of kidney failure, waste products like urea accumulate in the blood,
which can be life-threatening.

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●​ Process:
1.​ Blood from an artery (e.g., radial artery in the arm) is drawn out.
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2.​ It is passed through a dialyzing unit, which contains a semi-permeable
membrane.
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3.​ The membrane is surrounded by a dialyzing fluid that has the same
composition as normal plasma, except that it is free of nitrogenous wastes.
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4.​ As the patient's blood passes through the unit, waste products (like urea) from
the blood diffuse across the semipermeable membrane into the dialyzing fluid
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due to the concentration gradient.

5.​ Essential substances (glucose, amino acids, salts) do not diffuse out as their
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concentration in the dialyzing fluid is similar to that in blood.

6.​ The filtered, clean blood is then pumped back into the patient's vein.
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●​ Significance: Dialysis saves lives for individuals with kidney failure, but it is a
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time-consuming process (several hours, multiple times a week) and does not replace
the full functions of a healthy kidney. Kidney transplantation is the long-term
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solution.
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Commonly Asked Board Exam Questions (Excretion)

1.​ What is excretion? Why is it an essential life process?

2.​ How do plants get rid of their waste products? Give any three methods.
3.​ Draw a neat and labelled diagram of the human excretory system.
4.​ Describe the structure of a nephron.
5.​ Explain the process of urine formation in humans, highlighting the three main steps.
6.​ Why is the process of ultrafiltration considered non-selective?
7.​ What is the role of the Loop of Henle in urine formation?
8.​ What is an artificial kidney? Explain the principle behind dialysis.

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9.​ Why do we urinate more frequently when we drink a lot of water?
10.​Name the nitrogenous waste products formed in human beings.

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11.​How does the body remove carbon dioxide?
12.​What are the functions of the ureters and urinary bladder?

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