MODULE 3

(Week 5-6)
Time Allocation: 6 Hours

College Department College of Teacher Education

Course Code GEC 1
Course Title Understanding the Self
Place of the Course in the Program General Education
Semester & Academic Year 2nd Semester, Academic Year 2020-2021
Instructor Nancy Jane D. Victorino

DISCUSSION
Psychological Perspective
Western and Eastern Thought
PART 1: The Self from Various
Perspectives

CILO (Course Intended Learning Outcome/s):

 Identify and define the concepts of the Self as a cognitive construction.
 Outline the concepts of the Self in Western and Eastern thought.
 Recognize how the different psychological concepts and western and eastern perspectives influenced one’s own
personality development.

I. Selfhood and Personality: The Psychology of Identity

A Sense of Self

Philosophy tries to answer the question ‘Who am I?’ from a general point of view of metaphysics and
epistemology. Psychology relates the same question to people with thoughts and emotions who are
growing up and living in a specific place, entertaining basic values, relating to other members of society,
and having to position themselves in it. As they grow up, they become competent members of their
society by forming an individual identity recognized by others and themselves.

Ever since Sigmund Freud in the early 20th century advanced his psychosexual theory of personality
development, we know that this is a delicate process. The model Freud devised to conceptualize the
human psyche as it unfolds from dependent newborn to autonomous adult turned out to be one of the most
influential contributions to psychology ever. In this model, personal identity is structured into three
parts, the id, the ego (or I ), and the superego (or above I ). These are interacting systems playing
different roles at different stages of development.

The id consists of the innate instinctual drives underlying sexual desire and aggressiveness. The
superego acts as a moral agency that regulates behaviour. And the ego is sandwiched in-between,
mediating the wants and requirements of id and superego. Growing up consists in learning how to deal
with each part and finding a balance.

Newborn children are all instinct and biological impulse. They only learn to control and repress
immediate wants gradually, by internalizing the demands of society imparted to them by their caregivers.
The ego grows out of the id as that part of it that has been modified by external influence. It is the
decision-making component of the personality that works on the basis of the ‘reality principle’,
which contrasts with the ‘pleasure principle’ of the id in that it encompasses the ability to devise realistic
strategies for achieving satisfaction.

Both id and ego seek pleasure and reward, but lack any moral guidelines as to how to achieve it in an
acceptable way. This is where the superego comes into play. It contains the moral standards of the
immediate and wider social environment. Socialization consists in internalizing these standards, a
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 process for which Freud introduced the concept of ‘identifying with’. By striving to be like people in their
environment, assimilating their views, values, and ways of acting, children identify with them, the first
models typically being parents and siblings. Subsequently, they transfer these properties and increasingly
identify with themselves, eventually acquiring their own identity during adolescence.

However, coming of age is not the end of psychological development. Seeking other role models, such as
political leaders, religious gurus, sports idols, YouTube stars, diet experts, and celebrities may continue
through adulthood as a way of connecting individual with collective identity, though the propensity to
adjust values and to adopt new ideals diminishes with advancing age.

In addition to values and social norms, the superego part of one’s identity includes an ‘ideal self’, that is,
an image of what you want to be. When your actions deviate from what you would expect from your ideal
self—by getting drunk, violating traffic regulations, or committing a crime—your superego may interfere
with your conduct and make you experience a bad conscience, a sense of guilt or shame. The two most
common strategies to deal with this painful state of mind are repression (you consign your failure to the
unconscious) and rationalization (you find a justification for going beyond the speed limit, evading taxes,
or torturing other human beings).

When neither repression nor rationalization works and you can no longer suffer the rupture between your
ideal self and your real self, you may be in need of professional help by a psychiatrist (or, if you are
Catholic, a priest who absolves you of your sins ‘in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the
Holy Spirit’).

A Deeper View on Sigmund Freud’s Theory of Personality & Defense Mechanisms

1. Freud’s Tripartite View on Personality (Psychic Apparatus)

Figure 1; Id, Ego, and Superego; [Link]

BLXvZFqlFNpsksQNHBTWBf0=/1501x1000/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/illo_id-ego-superego-
[Link]; 03/09/21

Freud believed that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping
our personality. For example, anxiety originating from traumatic experiences in a person's past is
hidden from consciousness, and may cause problems during adulthood (in the form of neuroses).

Thus, when we explain our behaviour to ourselves or others (conscious mental activity), we rarely
give a true account of our motivation. This is not because we are deliberately lying. While human
beings are great deceivers of others; they are even more adept at self-deception.

Freud's life work was dominated by his attempts to find ways of penetrating this often subtle and
elaborate camouflage that obscures the hidden structure and processes of personality.

His lexicon has become embedded within the vocabulary of Western society. Words he
introduced through his theories are now used by everyday people, such as anal (personality),
libido, denial, repression, cathartic, Freudian slip, and neurotic.

Page | 17 GEC 1 Understanding the Self (2nd Semester; A.Y 2020-2021)

Disclaimer: We do not take ownership of any intellectual property that is included in this
module. All rights belong to their rightful owner. Books, websites, pictures etc. that was used in
the making of this module is properly cited in the reference/s section at the end of every module.
 Freud (1923) later developed a more structural model of the
mind comprising the entities id, ego, and superego (what Freud
called “the psychic apparatus”). These are not physical areas
within the brain, but rather hypothetical conceptualizations of
important mental functions.

The id, ego, and superego have most commonly been

conceptualized as three essential parts of the human
personality.

Freud assumed the id operated at an unconscious level

according to the pleasure principle (gratification from
satisfying basic instincts). The id comprises two kinds of
biological instincts (or drives) which Freud called Eros and
Thanatos.

Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it directs

life-sustaining activities such as respiration, eating, and sex
Figure 2; The Unconscious Mind;
[Link] (Freud, 1925). The energy created by the life instincts is known
[Link]; 03/09/21 as libido.

In contrast, Thanatos or death instinct, is viewed as a set of

destructive forces present in all human beings (Freud, 1920).
When this energy is directed outward onto others, it is
expressed as aggression and violence. Freud believed that Eros
is stronger than Thanatos, thus enabling people to survive
rather than self-destruct.
The ego develops from the id during infancy. The ego's goal is to satisfy the demands of the id in
a safe a socially acceptable way. In contrast to the id, the ego follows the reality principle as it
operates in both the conscious and unconscious mind.

The superego develops during early childhood (when the child identifies with the same sex
parent) and is responsible for ensuring moral standards are followed. The superego operates on
the morality principle and motivates us to behave in a socially responsible and acceptable
manner.

2. Freud’s Topographical Model of the Mind

On the surface is consciousness, which consists of those thoughts that are the focus of our
attention now, and this is seen as the tip of the iceberg. The preconscious consists of all which
can be retrieved from memory.

The third and most significant region is the unconscious. Here lie the processes that are the real
cause of most behaviour. Like an iceberg, the most important part of the mind is the part you
cannot see.

The unconscious mind acts as a repository, a ‘cauldron’ of primitive wishes and impulse kept at
bay and mediated by the preconscious area.

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 Figure 3; The Unconscious Mind; [Link] 03/09/21

3. Freud’s Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person
from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings.

Figure 4; Defense Mechanisms; [Link]

03/09/21

William James’ “Me-Self” and “I-Self”

William James (1890) distinguished two understandings of the self, the self as “Me” and the self as “I”.
This distinction has recently regained popularity in cognitive science, especially in the context of
experimental studies on the underpinnings of the phenomenal self. The goal of this paper is to take a step
back from cognitive science and attempt to precisely distinguish between “Me” and “I” in the context of
consciousness. This distinction was originally based on the idea that the former (“Me”) corresponds to
the self as an object of experience (self as object), while the latter (“I”) reflects the self as a subject of
experience (self as subject). I will argue that in most of the cases (arguably all) this distinction maps onto
the distinction between the phenomenal self (reflecting self-related content of consciousness) and the
metaphysical self (representing the problem of subjectivity of all conscious experience), and as such these
two issues should be investigated separately using fundamentally different methodologies. Moreover, by
referring to Metzinger’s (2018) theory of phenomenal self-models, I will argue that what is usually
investigated as the phenomenal-“I” [following understanding of self-as-subject introduced by

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module. All rights belong to their rightful owner. Books, websites, pictures etc. that was used in
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 Wittgenstein (1958)] can be interpreted as object, rather than subject of experience, and as such can be
understood as an element of the hierarchical structure of the phenomenal self-model. This understanding
relates to recent predictive coding and free energy theories of the self and bodily self-discussed in
cognitive neuroscience and philosophy.

James theorized the components of the self, which he divided into two categories: “Me” and “I.”

The “Me” is a separate individual a person refers to when talking about their personal experiences.

On the other hand, the “I” is the part of the self that knows who they are and what they have
accomplished in life (Pomerleau, 2014).

For example, in the statement "I know it was me who ate the cookie,” the "Me" is the empirical self, the
one who does the acting, whereas the "I" is the self that is capable of thinking and reflecting (Cooper,
1992).

The “I” is the pure ego – it is what provides continuity between past, present, and future, allowing us to
view ourselves to have a consistent, individual identity, one brought about by the stream of consciousness
that James first defined (Hunt, 1920).

Although the “I” self cannot be further divided, the “Me” can be further broken down into three sub-
categories: a material, social, and spiritual self.

 The material self consists of what belongs to a person, such as the body, family, clothes, or
money.
 The social self marks who you are in a specific social situation. We tend to change our actions,
thoughts, emotions, words, and mannerisms based on the current social situation or the people
with whom we are interacting.

For example, we act differently when at work as opposed to when out with friends, as do we when talking
to our boss as opposed to a coworker.

 Finally, our spiritual self is who we are at our core, including our personality, values, and
conscience. Our spiritual self typically remains relatively stable throughout our lifetime (Green,
1997).

Together, these aspects form the self – the conscious entity capable of experiencing physiological
responses, emotions, and thoughts. William James’ contributions to the field of psychology run
unparalleled to most other players in this field.

His theories, written works, and foundational school of thought paved the way for decades of research
and intellectual pursuits to come.

Psychological Differentiation

Psychological differentiation is an important aspect of self-development. As Dr. Robert Firestone writes

in his book The Self-Under Siege: A Therapeutic Model for Differentiation, “In order for people to live
their own own lives and fulfill their destinies, they must differentiate from destructive environmental
influences.”

Dr. Firestone believes that a person’s true identity is affected throughout their lives by interpersonal
experiences that either support or damage the development of his or her personality. In order for us to live
our own lives and fulfill our own destinies, we must differentiate ourselves from destructive family and
societal influences. Differentiating from negative influences and identities from our past allows us to
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module. All rights belong to their rightful owner. Books, websites, pictures etc. that was used in
the making of this module is properly cited in the reference/s section at the end of every module.
 become who we truly are, rather than following a prescribed identity from either our family or our
society. To the extent that we are able to develop and sustain our own unique identities and follow
our own unique desires, we will be able to live truly fulfilling lives.

So, you should ask yourself:

Whose life am I really living?

Am I basing my life on my own personal beliefs, values and desires?

By undertaking the project of differentiation, we are able to more fully become the unique individuals
that we have the potential to be. By understanding the process of psychological differentiation, we can
begin to separate ourselves from the chains of the past and lead the most individualistic and meaningful
lives possible.

The Four Steps of Differentiation

1. Breaking with destructive thoughts and attitudes towards ourselves that we internalize based on
painful early life experiences.
2. Recognizing and changing negative personality traits in ourselves that are an incorporation of the
negative traits of our parents, caregivers, or other influential figures.
3. Looking into the psychological defenses we developed as an adaptation to the pain and distress we
experienced growing up.
4. Developing our own values, ideals, and beliefs rather than automatically accepting the beliefs that
we grew up with or those of our culture.

Self-Concept and School Performance

Self-concept has been studied extensively over the last few decades as a major construct related to
educational achievement. Popular concerns about the “self-esteem movement” reflect a lack of
understanding about this complex construct and about research on positive psychology. Our focus here is
on first differentiating among several self-constructs; second, we note the ways students form their self-
concept; third, we highlight the associations and causal ordering of academic self-concept and school
performance; then, some implications for educational practice are explored.

Are self-concept, self-esteem and self-efficacy the same?

Self-concept is generally thought of as our individual perceptions of our behavior, abilities, and unique
characteristics—a mental picture of who you are as a person. For example, beliefs such as "I am a good
friend" or "I am a kind person" are part of an overall self-concept.

Self-concept tends to be more malleable when people are younger and still going through the process of
self-discovery and identity formation. As people age, self-perceptions become much more detailed and
organized as people form a better idea of who they are and what is important to them.

In psychology, the term self-esteem is used to describe a person's overall subjective sense of personal
worth or value—in other words, how much you appreciate and like yourself. It involves a variety of
beliefs about yourself, such as the appraisal of your own appearance, beliefs, emotions, and behaviors.

Self-esteem includes all of the various beliefs that people hold about themselves including those related
to how they look and feel, as well as how they feel about specific attributes or abilities ("I am a great
painter," "I'm a terrible friend," etc.).

Other terms that are often used interchangeably with self-esteem include self-worth, self-regard, and self-
respect.
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module. All rights belong to their rightful owner. Books, websites, pictures etc. that was used in
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 According to Albert Bandura, self-efficacy is "the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the
courses of action required to manage prospective situations." Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or
her ability to succeed in a particular situation. Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of how
people think, behave, and feel.

How do students form self-concept?

As a function of development, conceptions of self are expected to become more differentiated, complex
and better organized over time. Earlier discussions posited that self-views developed from an individuals’
experiences with and explanation of their own environment. In turn, these views were seen as determined
by others’ attributions of behavior and appraisals and through various reinforcement contingencies
(Shavelson et al, 1976). This view has evolved into a reciprocal determinist explanation and an emphasis
on principles of comparison (i.e., the concept of frames of reference). Such a multidimensional view
stresses the continuous reciprocal transactions between person and environment and the different self-
concepts that emerge from the frames of reference individuals use in assessing self, all of which
influences subsequent decisions, attitude and performance (Marsh, Trautweine, Ludtke, & Koller, 2008).

In school, for example, rank orderings created through group comparisons can profoundly shape self-
esteem and academic self-concept. Students compare themselves to their peers, generating informal
rankings. Some youngsters proactively look for cues to determine their position among their peers; others
tend to react to positive and negative communications from peers and adults.

Applying this view, a big-fish-little-pond effect has been described (Marsh & Hau, 2003). For example, a
top student in small high school may be seen as only average or even below average upon admission to a
large, scholastically selective university. This can have a negative effect on the student's academic self-
concept.

How is self-concept related to academic performance?

Research suggests that students who perceive their academic skills positively tend to participate in more
attainment-oriented behaviors such as engaging in class activities, finishing homework, and studying for
exams (Valentine, DuBois, & Cooper, 2004). And, there is a substantial body of research suggesting that
low self-esteem affects motivation and is a barrier to learning (Green, Nelson, Martin, & Marsh, 2006).

Several models have been proposed in explaining such findings (Green, et al., 2006). The self-
enhancement model suggests that self-concept is the precursor to academic achievement. The skill-
development model proposes that academic achievement predicts self-concept so that stronger academic
skills lead to higher self-concept. The reciprocal effects model views the self-enhancement and skill-
development models as insufficient; it stresses that academic performance both influences and is
influenced by academic self-concept.

What are the implications for educational intervention?

Given that self-concept and school performance mutually influence each other, teachers and parents
should aim to improve both academic achievement and self-concept in students and address potential
mediators. Efforts to enhance self-concept or school performance alone can be expected to be transitory
(Marsh & Craven, 2006).

As students form self-concept through social comparison, educators can help avoid or diminish views of
low self-concept by minimizing social comparisons. More affirmatively, educators can help adjust the
frames of reference students use in evaluating their competence (e.g., encouraging students to focus on
the extent that they have improved over time rather than concentrating on how the other students are
performing. Teachers can also minimize social comparison by avoiding competitions that acknowledge
and praise only the “winners.” Increasingly, efforts to enhance student self-concepts are focusing on
enhancing feelings of empowerment and confidence by creating a friendly and encouraging school
environment that appreciates personal strengths and assets (Liem, McInerney & Yeung, 2015).

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 Multiple vs. Unified Selves

According to David Lester, the mind is composed of multiple such subselves that are autonomous sets of
psychological processes such as dreams, desires, emotions, and memories.

The unified self is a means of referring to the "composite" persona, or to the "self" that contains all of the
other personas that exist within a person's interactional style.

Multiple selves (or multiple personas) refer to the different ways that individuals interact with the
different situations and circumstances in their lives.

True vs. False Selves

This psychological theory of the True and the False Self is the work of one of the twentieth century’s
greatest thinkers, the English psychoanalyst and child psychiatrist Donald Winnicott.

The True Self

The true self is represented by our real feelings and desires. The true self refers to a sense of self based on
authentic experience, and the feeling of being truly present and alive.

The Healthy False Self

The healthy false self is described as one which allows someone to be functional in society. It enables
politeness and social courtesy, even when we may not feel like it.

There are times in our day-to-day lives when it would be harmful for us to let our true selves dominate.
For instance, we don’t bare our deepest feelings and thoughts while at work. That kind of vulnerability
would not only demonstrate a lack of boundaries but would also open us up to potential attack from
others who might not treat our feelings with acceptance.

Instead, we use our healthy false self: one that functions perfectly and allows us to live our lives, but
protects the true self, keeping it safe until a time when we are around people we know we can trust.

Put simply, a major component of the healthy false self is an awareness of personal boundaries.

A healthy false self is one that works with and stays committed to the true self. It is a form of useful self-
protection, in that it shields us at times when vulnerability would not be appropriate, or might even be
harmful.

The Unhealthy False Self

The unhealthy false self comes from the same origins as the healthy false self. However, for our long-
term well-being, the effects of the unhealthy false self are quite different to those of its counterpart.

This false self is the one behind many dysfunctional behaviours, including narcissism and addiction. D.
W. Winnicott defines the unhealthy false self as one that fits into society through forced compliance
rather than a desire to adapt.

Real-life examples of the false self are based around certain beliefs that we take on in order to fit into our
worlds better.

If I am pretty, I will be more likeable.

If I have a lot of money, I am successful.
If I work hard/achieve more, I will have more value.
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 One more glass of wine, and I’ll start feeling better.

In our society, there is a huge emphasis on altruism and being selfless. We are taught to put others before
ourselves, that it is good to ‘be there’ for other people and that self-sacrifice is a virtue.

All these beliefs are false self-beliefs.

Our real feelings and desires matter.

They are what they are, and they are part of who we are. The ‘shoulds’, ‘ought tos’ and ‘have tos’ are
learned ideas, not part of our true selves. When we think about how many activities we may carry out in
our daily lives through a sense of obligation, it might be useful to trace these ‘shoulds’ back to their
origin.

The only obligation we have to anyone is to ourselves.

II. The Self in Western and Eastern Thought

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Individualism emphasizes individual goals and rights. Collectivism emphasizes group goals and personal
relationships.

An individualist is motivated by personal rewards and benefits. Individualist persons set personal goals
and objectives based on self. Individualistic workers are very comfortable working with autonomy and not
part of a team.

The collectivist is motivated by group goals. Long-term relationships are very important. Collectivistic
persons easily sacrifice individual benefit or praise to recognize and honor the team’s success. In fact,
being singled out and honored as an individual from the rest of the team may be embarrassing to the
collectivistic person.

The generalized geographic clusters of individualism may be found in Anglo countries, Germanic
Europe, and Nordic Europe. Geographic clusters for collectivism are often located in Arab countries,
Latin America, Confucian Asia, Southern Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa.
An example of how individualism versus collectivism may play out at a university is related to academic
integrity. At a university in the United States where individualism is considered the norm, each individual
student is expected and generally required to do their own individual work. Sometimes this is confusing to
international students from a collectivistic society who come to a university in the United States. The
collectivistic expectation is that if another student with whom you have a personal relationship needs your
help, then you provide that help. A collectivistic student has a mandatory social obligation to help the
other student succeed. This higher collectivistic social obligation can be in direct violation of academic
integrity in an individualistic academic setting.

The Western Thought (Cartesian)

Although there is no one single concept of self in Western thought, the Cartesian view of the self has
influenced the Western approach to economic, political, legal, cultural, and administrative systems. This
concept depicts the highly atomistic, separate, I-me, autonomous individual or ego. Thus, most modern
concepts of the Self have Cartesian epistemological roots, but anti-Cartesian views have also emerged
with the development of post-Enlightenment philosophy, symbolic interaction ism, ethnomethodology,
humanistic psychology, and postmodernism.

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 Rene Descartes (1596-1650) is regarded as one of the founders of modern epistemology. In his method,
the first reality discovered is the thinking self. His view of the thinking self ("thinking thing") is that of a
separate and individual self with a rational mind. He argues that "an objective, ego-oriented world of
meaning" allows the individual to be rational. His view on an atomistic view of the self does not include a
person's social, or relational, nature. He assumes that "the real is the rational? so that the more rational we
become, the more in touch with reality we are." Thus any rational person will accept "the existence of the
self as an individual thinking thing" (Allen, 1997, p. 7). This "thing" is not historically, relationally, and
culturally constituted, and is able to control society through practical reason and scientific means.

The idea of atomistic selves is further reflected in the writings of many economists. Adam Smith (1723-
1790) who established his reputation as not only a liberal economic theorist but also a distinguished
lecturer on literature and moral philosophy wrote two important books, The Wealth of Nations
(1937/1776) and The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1966/1759). His work on economic theory became the
foundation-work of modern economic thought. His idea that every individual is motivated by prudent
self-interest recalls Plato's concept of virtue: every member of the republic follows his or her own natural
predisposition in developing his or her talents to perfection. Smith assumes that if people are allowed to
follow their economic interests unrestrictedly (except for the control of criminal behavior and fraud),
then a natural economic balance will evolve in which the state as a whole will profit from the integral
interests and labors of the population. Smith recognizes that the wealth of a nation grows with the
increased skill and efficiency of labor and with the greater involvement of the population in production
and, eventually, in consumption (Smith, 1776/1937). Smith's unified theory of economic development,
which is largely based on the promotion of the genuine self-interest of individuals, has influenced other
theorists, such as David Ricardo, Jeremy Bentham, and John Stuart Mill. Since the late nineteenth century,
there have been numerous movements that critique this construction of the self that largely promote the
interests of atomistic and self-centered individuals. These critiques have come from communists,
pragmatists, feminists, communitarians, and contemporary virtue theorists.

The Eastern Thought (Confucius, Buddha/Buddhism, Hinduism, and Taoism)

Because the social construction of self in Asian countries has a wide range of interpretations, in this
section I briefly describe some major Asian schools of thought? Confucianism, Buddhism, and Hinduism?
to illustrate the contrasting views of self. Furthermore, an understand ing (or blending) of Western and
Eastern conceptions can lead to more humanistic and ethical ways of organizational governance and
human relationships. In many ways, Confucian principles for living a virtuous and ethical life complement
the Western understanding of the individual. Born in 551 B.C., Confucius became a cabinet-level official
of the state of Lu at fifty-one. After he resigned his government job, he traveled through many of the
feudal states of China accompanied by his disciples; he spent the rest of his life in literary studies. His
work helps to form the basis of Chinese culture, and his philosophy continues to influence many Asian
societies, particularly East Asian countries. He preached an exclusively ethical doctrine, with an emphasis
on the practical side of human conduct. According to Confucius, "The best individ ual morality in the
world could fail collectively if there were not good government as well" (Feibleman, 1976, p. 91). To
Confucius, becoming a moral person is an ongoing and lifelong process, and this learning process must
take place within one's particular moral community.

Confucius explained that there are six virtues and six accompanying failures:

 First, there is the mere love of morality: that alone, without culture, degenerates into fatuity.

 Secondly, there is the mere love of knowledge; that alone, without culture, tends to dilettantism.

 Thirdly, there is the mere love of honesty: that alone, without culture, produces heartlessness.

 Fourthly, there is the mere love of uprightness: that alone, without culture, leads to tyranny.

 Fifthly, there is the mere love of courage: that alone, without culture, produces recklessness.

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  Sixthly, there is the mere love of strength of character: that alone, without culture, produces
eccentricity. (The Analects of Confucius, XVII, p. 8).

According to Confucian ethics, a superior person (a sage) behaves morally; such a person is what Alasdair
Maclntyre terms a "character," not necessarily a "superior" individual. According to Maclntyre, such
people are "the moral representatives of their culture and they are so because of the way in which moral
and metaphysical ideas and theories assume through them an embodied existence in the social world.
Characters are the masks worn by moral philosophers" (1981, p. 28). One can take the role of a character
without believing in its values? for example, managers justify their role through this "character" as moral
and rational agents of the organization. Maclntyre says the problem with these characters is that they do
not engage in reflexivity or moral de bate. They accept their right to make decisions for others based on
objective and rational criteria. Most modern managers are morally neutral technicians. For a superior
person according to Confucius, living as the "character" within the moral community means above all
else, a com mitment to the process of moral self-cultivation and constructing personal identity through the
virtue of jen (benevolence) and li (propriety) (Chong, Tan, & Ten, 2003; Tu, 1985).

In contrast to the Cartesian view of the atomistic self, the Confucian self is relational and
interdependent. East Asian countries influenced by Confucian practice believe that certain sets of human
relationships are the basis of the moral community.

Traditionally, these relationships are described hierarchically in five pairs, namely:

1. ruler and ministers;

2. father and son;
3. husband and wife;
4. elder and younger brother; and
5. friend and friend (i.e.,considering to age difference).

In these hierarchical relationships, loyalty and obedience are critical to the maintenance of trusting
relationships, and the sovereign and his ministers share a common moral purpose of righteousness or
justice.

Buddhism

Buddhism is the dominant religious, philosophical, cultural, social, and spiritual force in most of Asia,
especially in China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, Nepal, and Thailand. Buddha, whose real name
was Siddhartha Gautama, was born about 563 B.C. in southern Nepal, near the Indian border. Buddha
means "enlightened one," or "awakened one." At the age of about twenty-nine, he became overwhelmed
with the conviction that life is filled with suffering and unhappiness. After traveling throughout northeast
India for about six years, he experienced enlightenment. He had, he believed, discovered why life is filled
with suffering, and how humanity can escape from this unhappy existence. Buddha's doctrine is derived
from "experience in the transformations of consciousness and the stages of meditation," not from
sense perception or logical operations. The core of the Buddha's knowledge is perceived only through
meditation: rational thinking is not adequate to the task of understanding human existence (Jaspers, 1957).
Through meditation, yoga, and prayer, an individual can become en lightened, liberated, and aware of his
or her unity with the universe. A person becomes aware of the Middle Way, the way between the
"extremes of asceticism, on the one hand, and indulgence, on the other. It is the concept of the rationed
life, in which the body is given what it needs to function optimally, but no more" (Smith & Novak, 2003,
p. 8).

Buddha denies the self: there is no self ("not self"), no individual, in his doctrine. Being and Non-
Being in the universe is a reflection of one's own self. No-self is the nature of an intuitive and subjective
perception toward oneself beyond the ordinary range of human experience that is full of the anxieties and
defensiveness. According to Zen Buddhism, "to study the self is to forget the self." When the self
becomes anxiety-free, one can act spontaneously.

Page | 26 GEC 1 Understanding the Self (2nd Semester; A.Y 2020-2021)

Disclaimer: We do not take ownership of any intellectual property that is included in this
module. All rights belong to their rightful owner. Books, websites, pictures etc. that was used in
the making of this module is properly cited in the reference/s section at the end of every module.
 We humans often live in suffering, craving, hatred and delusion because we lose sight of the real self and
attach ourselves to our smaller self. Buddha emphasizes that "our concepts of the self or ego are illusory,
that an ego-constructed world is essential to our ignorance and suffer ing, and that freedom or liberation
entails self-transcendence? or, since there is no substantial self, transcendence of the illusion of the self"
(Allen, 1997, pp. 10-11).

The implications of Buddhism are to emphasize compassion for others and conduct ourselves with
restraint out of a sense of responsibility (His Holiness the Dalai Lama, 1999, pp. 123-131). Like other
religious teachings, Buddhism facilitates our seeing human qualities of compassion, love, patience,
tolerance, humility, forgiveness, mutual respect and understanding, harmony, and so forth. These would
have a special role to play in our contemporary world.

Hinduism

Hinduism is the most important influence on the culture of India. A basic tenet of Hinduism is the caste
system, which determines the way of life of most Indian Hindus. Like most religions, Hinduism has
beliefs about the Divine, life after death, and how its followers should conduct their lives. Hindus believe
that an individual's action (Karma)? the bad or good actions that the individual performed in a
previous life? determines his or her caste. Hinduism is concerned with the spiritual essence of the self.
The religion is heavily mystical and deals with many super natural ideas and forces (Feibleman, 1976, p.
74). The Bhagavad-Gita, a philosophical work and one of Hinduism's sacred writings, emphasizes selfless
action, that is, "renunciation of any ego-attachment to the fruit of one's action" (Allen, 1997, p. 9). The
Gita suggests means for transcending a false, or illusory, self, that is, the ego-oriented self. This
transcendence of self is seen as essential to spiritual liberation.

Taoism

In Taoism, the relativity of opposites is present in other aspects of the universe, such as yin and yang: yin
is all that is feminine, gentle, dark, and meek; yang is all that is masculine, forceful, light, and active. Yin
and yang exist in a mutual relationship and reinforce each other. Life arises from death and vice versa;
possibility arises from impossibility and vice versa; affirmation is based upon denial and vice versa. These
opposites are very different but they are inseparable; they are not in conflict with each other, but instead
embrace the possibility of unity. Opposites therefore do not have the same meaning as they do in the
West, with its strong sense of dualism; rather, opposites are an "explicit duality expressing an implicit
unity" (Watts, 1997).

In Taoism, self does not exist without the existence of the other; self as a separate identity is supported
by the "equal and opposite sensation of otherness" such as the dialectical relationship between yin and
yang (Watts, 1997, p. 68).

References:
1. Coulmas, F. (2019). Identity: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. (available for download
at [Link])
2. Sigmund Freud’s Theories; [Link] 03/09/21
3. Defense Mechanisms; [Link] 03/09/21
4. “I” and “Me”: The Self in the Context of Consciousness;
[Link] 03/09/21
5. William James Biography and Contributions to Psychology; [Link]
[Link]#self; 03/09/21
6. Psychological Differentiation; [Link] 03/09/21
7. What is Self-Concept; [Link] 03/09/21
8. What is Self-Esteem?; [Link] 03/09/21
9. Self-Efficacy and Why Believing in Yourself Matters; [Link]
2795868; 03/09/21
10. Self-Concept and School Performance; [Link] 03/09/21
Page | 27 GEC 1 Understanding the Self (2nd Semester; A.Y 2020-2021)
Disclaimer: We do not take ownership of any intellectual property that is included in this
module. All rights belong to their rightful owner. Books, websites, pictures etc. that was used in
the making of this module is properly cited in the reference/s section at the end of every module.
 11. Who am I Really? True Self vs. False Self; [Link]
false-self/; 03/09/21
12. Individualism vs. Collectivism; [Link]
intelligence/0/steps/49772; 03/09/21
13. Jun, Jong S. “The Self in the Social Construction of Organizational Reality: Eastern and Western
Views.” Administrative Theory & Praxis, vol. 27, no. 1, 2005, pp. 86–110. JSTOR,
[Link]/stable/25610715. Accessed 9 Mar. 2021.

Additional Learning Resources:

1. The True and the False Self; [Link]
03/09/21
2. True or False: Winnicott’s Notion of Self; [Link]
notions-of-self/; 03/09/21
3. Confucious, The Art of Becoming Better (Self-Cultivation); [Link] 03/09/21
4. Eastern Philosophy – The Buddha; [Link] 03/09/21
5. 6 Great Sayings from Western Philosophy; [Link] 03/09/21
6. Six Ideas from Eastern Philosophies; [Link] 03/09/21

GEC 1 MODULE 3: Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives

ACTIVITY
Name: ____________________________________ Course Code: _____________________
Course/Yr./Section: _________________________ Module # & Week: ________________
Direction: Sigmund Freud believed that the Self is tripartite in nature. Based on your understanding, what do you
think are the pros and cons of Sigmund Freud’s personality theory? Give 2 (two) pros and cons. 1-2 sentences per
answer only. Write legibly.

Pros Cons

1.

2.

EXERCISE
Direction:. Write your answer on the space BEFORE the number.
__________1. According to Freud, it consists of things that we are not immediately aware of but we can if we wanted
to.
__________2. A man has been scolded by his boss but instead of taking it out on his superior he went home and got
mad at his wife instead. What kind of defense mechanism is being played in this situation?
__________3. Jane had had thoughts of wanting to physically hit her little brother for the past few days. However,
instead of going through with her thoughts she decided to go and cook many different kinds of dishes instead. What
kind of defense mechanism is being played in this situation?
__________4. William James identified 2(two) distinctions within the Self. What are these distinctions?
__________5. This is a subcategory of one of William James’ distinctions of the Self which consists of the things we
physically own.

Page | 28 GEC 1 Understanding the Self (2nd Semester; A.Y 2020-2021)

Disclaimer: We do not take ownership of any intellectual property that is included in this
module. All rights belong to their rightful owner. Books, websites, pictures etc. that was used in
the making of this module is properly cited in the reference/s section at the end of every module.
__________6. It is defined as being aware of the negativity within and outside of us in order to achieve fuller and
meaningful lives.
__________7. It is defined as the mental picture of ourselves.
__________8. True or False. The False Self is always bad.
__________9. True or False. The Confucian Self is independent and individualistic.
__________10. True or False. Buddhism emphasizes “karma”.

REFLECTION
Direction: Summarize what you have learned in this module in 5 (five) short sentences only. Write your answer
inside the box. Write legibly.

Page | 29 GEC 1 Understanding the Self (2nd Semester; A.Y 2020-2021)

Disclaimer: We do not take ownership of any intellectual property that is included in this
module. All rights belong to their rightful owner. Books, websites, pictures etc. that was used in
the making of this module is properly cited in the reference/s section at the end of every module.