Many organ systems play a role in managing an animal’s internal

environment, a task that can present a major challenge. Imagine if your

body temperature soared every time you took a hot shower or drank a
freshly brewed cup of coffee. Faced with environmental fluctuations,
animals manage their internal environment by either regulating or
conforming.

-Campbell Biology, 10th Edition

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

1. Define physiology.
2. Understand homeostasis and its importance.
3. Learn how biological regulation works

Pretest

Multiple Choice
Directions: Read the following questions and write your answer on the box provided.

1. Homeostasis is state of maintaining balance.

a. True
b. False

2. Which of the following has the Levels of Organization of an organism listed in the correct
order from smallest to largest and includes all the levels?

a. cells -> organ -> tissue -> organism

b. organism -> organ system -> organ -> tissue -> cells
ANSWERS:
c. cells -> tissue -> organ -> organ system -> organism
d. organ -> tissue -> cells -> organism 1.
2.
3. Balance in an organism is coined as 3.
a. effector
4.
b. response
c. homeostasis 5.
d. stimuli
4. A(n) _____________ is made up of only biotic factors and includes all of the different
populations in an area.
a. Population
b. Biosphere
c. Ecosystem
d. Community

5. What word describes a single living thing?

a. Organism
b. Tissue
c. Organ System

Thank you for answering the test.

If you got a score below 5, go to the following links

Levels of Organization in Biology

[Link]
ebaSisters

Homeostasis
[Link]
oebaSisters

for further information

The next section is the content of this unit. It contains vital

information on the basic concepts of Physiology. Please read the
content.
 Content

In this course, you will learn the fundamental concepts on how a living organism works.
Basically, this module will encompass Animal Physiology.

What is Physiology?
Physiology is the science that seeks to explain the physical and chemical mechanisms
that are responsible for the origin, development, and progression of life. Each type of life,
from the simplest virus to the largest tree or the complicated human being, has its own
functional characteristics.

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Because form and function are correlated, examining anatomy often provides clues to
physiology—biological function. We will begin our study of animal form and function by
examining the organization of cells and tissues in the animal body, the systems for
coordinating the activities of different body parts, and the general means by which animals
control their internal environment. We then apply these ideas to two challenges of
particular relevance for desert animals: regulating body temperature and maintaining
proper balance of body salts and water.
Levels of Organization
▪ Cell- smallest structural and functional unit of life. Some organisms are single cells,
while others are multicellular.
▪ Tissue- a group of cells that work together, performing a specialized function
▪ Organs-different types of tissues are further organized into functional units. Many
organs have more than one physiological role.
▪ Organ system- groups of organs that work together, providing an additional level
of organization and coordination
▪ Organism- individual living thing
▪ Population- consists of all the individuals of a species living within the bounds of
a specified area
▪ Community-array of organisms inhabiting a particular ecosystem
▪ Ecosystem-consists of all the living things in a particular area, along with all the
nonliving components of the environment with which life interacts, such as soil,
water, atmospheric gases, and light
Figure 1. Levels of Biological Organization. Physiologists study the interactions between
molecules, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems to understand the structure and
function of an organism.

Note: A Photo of Levels of Biological Organization. Adapted from “Principles of Animal Physiology
(p.31)” by Moyes et al. Copyright 2014 by Pearson Limited.

As you can see, cells are the smallest functional living units of the body. Each type of cell
is specially adapted to perform one or a few particular functions. For instance, the red
blood cells, numbering about 25 trillion in each human being, transport oxygen from the
lungs to the tissues. Although the many cells of the body often differ markedly from one
another, all of them have certain basic characteristics that are alike. For instance, oxygen
reacts with carbohydrate, fat, and protein to release the energy.

ANIMAL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Most cells of an animal are exposed to the internal environment, not the external
environment. The conditions experienced by most of an animal’s cells are the conditions
inside the body, not those outside. Most cells are bathed by the animal’s tissue fluids or
blood. Thus, the environment of most cells consists of the set of conditions prevailing in
the tissue fluids or blood.
Claude Bernard (1813–1878), a Frenchman who was one of the most influential
physiologists of the nineteenth century, was the first to codify this concept. He coined the
term internal environment (milieu intérieur) to refer to the set of conditions—
temperature, pH, sodium (Na+) concentration, and so forth—experienced by cells within
an animal’s body. The conditions outside the body represent the external environment.
Animals display two principal types of relation between their internal and external
environments:
1. when the conditions outside an animal’s body change, the animal may permit its
internal environment to match the external conditions and thus change along with
the outside changes, or
2. the animal may maintain constancy in its internal environment
If the temperature of an animal’s external environment changes, there are two options:
1. for the animal to let its internal temperature change to match the external
temperature. If an animal permits internal and external conditions to be equal, it is
said to show conformity
2. for the animal to maintain a constant internal temperature. If the animal maintains
internal constancy in the face of external variability, it shows regulation.
Conformity and regulation are extremes; intermediate responses are common.
Figure 2. Conformity and Regulation. These examples from the study of temperature
illustrate the general principles of conformity (A) and regulation (B).

Note: A Photo of Conformity and Regulation. Adapted from “Animal Physiology 4th Edition (p.14)” by Hill
et al. Copyright 2016 by Sinauer Associates, Inc.

For you to understand it well, let’s examine relationship between body and
environmental temperatures in an aquatic temperature regulator and an aquatic
temperature conformer. The river otter regulates its body temperature, keeping it
stable across a wide range of environmental temperatures. The largemouth bass,
meanwhile, allows its internal environment to conform to the water temperature.
Figure 3. Relationship Between Body and Environmental Temperatures in an Aquatic
Temperature Regulator and an Aquatic Temperature Conformer.

Note: A Photo of Relationship Between Body and Environmental Temperatures in an Aquatic

Temperature Regulator and an Aquatic Temperature Conformer. Adapted from “Campbell Biology 10th
Edition (p.875)” by Reece et al. Copyright 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Regulation demands more energy than conformity because regulation represents a form
of organization. How does regulation represent organization? The answer is that during
regulation, an animal maintains constancy inside its body, and it maintains distinctions
between inside and outside conditions. Both the constancy and the distinctions are types
of organization.
Difference Between Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids
▪ Extracellular Fluid- contains large amounts of sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate
ions plus nutrients for the cells, such as oxygen, glucose, fatty acids, and amino
acids.
-It also contains carbon dioxide that is being transported from the cells to
the lungs to be excreted, plus
▪ Intracellular Fluid- it contains large amounts of potassium, magnesium, and
phosphate ions instead of the sodium and chloride ions found in the extracellular
fluid

HOMEOSTASIS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS

Homeostasis (steady state)- an important concept regarding the nature and significance
of internal constancy
- the existence of regulator systems that automatically make adjustments to
maintain internal constancy
- the coordinated physiological processes which maintain most of the [constant]
states in the organism (Walter Cannon)
Many animals exhibit homeostasis for a range of physical and chemical properties. For
example, humans maintain a fairly constant body temperature of about 37°C (98.6°F), a
blood pH within 0.1 pH unit of 7.4, and a blood glucose concentration that is predominantly
in the range of 70–110 mg of glucose per 100 mL of blood.

Mechanisms of Homeostasis
Before exploring homeostasis in animals, let’s first consider a nonliving example: the
regulation of room temperature. Let’s assume you want to keep a room at 20°C (68°F), a
comfortable temperature for normal activity. You set a control device—the thermostat—
to 20°C. A thermometer in the thermostat monitors the room temperature. If the
temperature falls below 20°C, the thermostat responds by turning on a radiator, furnace,
or other heater. Once the room temperature reaches 20°C, the thermostat switches off
the heater. If the temperature then drifts below 20°C, the thermostat activates another
heating cycle.
Figure 4. A Nonliving Example of Temperature Regulation: Control of Room Temperature.
Regulating room temperature depends on a control center (a thermostat) that detects
temperature change and activates mechanisms that reverse that change

Note: A Photo of A Nonliving Example of

Temperature Regulation: Control of Room
Temperature Adapted from “Campbell
Biology 10th Edition (p.876)” by Reece et
al. Copyright 2014 by Pearson Education,
Inc.

Like a home heating system, an animal achieves homeostasis by maintaining a variable,

such as body temperature or solute concentration, at or near a particular value, or set
point. A fluctuation in the variable above or below the set point serves as the stimulus
detected by a sensor. Upon receiving a signal from the sensor, a control center
generates output that triggers a response, a physiological activity that helps return the
variable to the set point. The effector is an organ, gland, muscle, or other structure that
acts on the signal from the control center to move the variable back toward the set point.
Biological Control Systems
Biological regulation is what allows an organism to handle the effects of a perturbation,
modulating its own constitutive dynamics in response to particular changes in internal and
external conditions. Biological systems contain two types of regulatory circuits: negative
and positive feedbacks.
A. Negative Feedback
Homeostasis in animals relies largely on negative feedback, a control mechanism that
reduces, or “damps,” the stimulus. For example, when you exercise vigorously, you
produce heat, which increases your body temperature. Your nervous system detects this
increase and triggers sweating. As you sweat, the evaporation of moisture from your skin
cools your body, helping return your body temperature to its set point and eliminating the
stimulus.
Figure 5. Negative Feedback Loop. (a) A negative feedback loop has four basic parts. (b)
Body temperature is regulated by negative feedback.

Note: A Photo of Negative Feedback Loop. Adapted from “Homeostasis: Figure 2” by OpenStax College, Anatomy
& Physiology. [Link]
Examples of processes controlled by negative feedback include body temperature
regulation and control of blood glucose.
a. BODY TEMPERATURE REGULATION
▪ Cooling Down
o The human body’s temperature regulatory center is the hypothalamus in the
brain. When the hypothalamus receives data from sensors in the skin and
brain that body temperature is higher than the set point, it sets into motion
the following responses:
▪ Blood vessels in the skin dilate (vasodilation) to allow more blood
from the warm body core to flow close to the surface of the body, so
heat can be radiated into the environment.
▪ As blood flow to the skin increases, sweat glands in the skin are
activated to increase their output of sweat (diaphoresis). When the
sweat evaporates from the skin surface into the surrounding air, it
takes the heat with it.
▪ Breathing becomes deeper, and the person may breathe through the
mouth instead of the nasal passages. This increases heat loss from
the lungs.
Figure 6. Temperature Regulation Played by the Hypothalamus

Note: A Photo of Temperature Regulation Played by the Hypothalamus. Adapted from “Homeostasis and
Feedback” by Biology LibreTexts. [Link]
 ▪ Heating Up
o When the brain’s temperature regulatory center receives data that body
temperature is lower than the set point, it sets into motion the following
responses:
▪ Blood vessels in the skin contract (vasoconstriction) to prevent blood
from flowing close to the surface of the body. This reduces heat loss
from the surface.
▪ As the temperature falls lower, random signals to skeletal muscles
are triggered, causing them to contract. This causes shivering, which
generates a small amount of heat.
▪ The thyroid gland may be stimulated by the brain (via the pituitary
gland) to secrete more thyroid hormone. This hormone increases
metabolic activity and heat production in cells throughout the body.
▪ The adrenal glands may also be stimulated to secrete the hormone
adrenaline. This hormone causes the breakdown of glycogen (the
carbohydrate used for energy storage in animals) to glucose, which
can be used as an energy source. This catabolic chemical process
is exothermic, or heat producing.
b. BLOOD GLUCOSE
When an animal has eaten, blood glucose levels rise. This is sensed by the nervous
system. Specialized cells in the pancreas sense this, and the hormone insulin is released
by the endocrine system. Insulin causes blood glucose levels to decrease, as would be
expected in a negative feedback system.
Figure 7. Blood Sugar Levels Are Controlled by A Negative Feedback Loop

Note: A Photo of Blood Sugar Levels Are Controlled by A Negative Feedback Loop. Adapted from
“Homeostasis” by OpenStax College, Anatomy & Physiology. [Link]
homeostasis
Blood glucose level needs to be controlled in order to prevent diabetes. In the control of
the blood glucose level, certain endocrine cells in the pancreas called alpha and beta
cells, detect the level of glucose in the blood. Then they respond appropriately to keep
the level of blood glucose within the normal range.
▪ If the blood glucose level rises above the normal range, pancreatic beta cells
release the hormone insulin into the bloodstream. Insulin signals cells to take up
the excess glucose from the blood until the level of blood glucose decreases to the
normal range.
▪ If the blood glucose level falls below the normal range, pancreatic alpha cells
release the hormone glucagon into the bloodstream. Glucagon signals cells to
break down stored glycogen to glucose and release the glucose into the blood until
the level of blood glucose increases to the normal range.
Figure 8. Homeostatic Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels
B. Positive Feedback
Positive feedback intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than
reversing it. A deviation from the normal range results in more change, and the system
moves farther away from the normal range. Positive feedback in the body is normal only
when there is a definite end point. Childbirth and the body’s response to blood loss are
two examples of positive feedback loops that are normal but are activated only when
needed.
a. CHILDBIRTH
Childbirth at full term is an example of a situation in which the maintenance of the existing
body state is not desired. Enormous changes in the mother’s body are required to expel
the baby at the end of pregnancy. And the events of childbirth, once begun, must progress
rapidly to a conclusion or the life of the mother and the baby are at risk. The extreme
muscular work of labor and delivery are the result of a positive feedback system.
Figure 9. Positive Feedback. A positive feedback loop results in a change in the body’s
status, rather than a return to homeostasis.

Note: A Photo of Positive Feedback Loop. Adapted from “Homeostasis: Figure 1” by OpenStax College, Anatomy
& Physiology. [Link]
The first contractions of labor (the stimulus) push the baby toward the cervix (the lowest
part of the uterus). The cervix contains stretch-sensitive nerve cells that monitor the
degree of stretching (the sensors). These nerve cells send messages to the brain, which
in turn causes the pituitary gland at the base of the brain to release the hormone oxytocin
into the bloodstream. Oxytocin causes stronger contractions of the smooth muscles in of
the uterus (the effectors), pushing the baby further down the birth canal. This causes
even greater stretching of the cervix. The cycle of stretching, oxytocin release, and
increasingly more forceful contractions stops only when the baby is born. At this point,
the stretching of the cervix halts, stopping the release of oxytocin.

b. BLOOD CLOTTING
The process starts with a tear in the blood vessel wall such as a cut. Impulses are then
sent to the brain to activate platelets to clot the cut. As platelets stick to the cut, chemicals
are released to the brain to send more platelets to the cut. This cycle continues until the
cut is sealed with a clot.
Figure 10. Blood Clotting

Note: A Photo of Blood Clotting. Adapted from “Childbirth” by Saleta Sallet-Cobb.

[Link]
Homeostatic Processes for Thermoregulation (involve form, function, and behavior)
An animal maintains its internal temperature within a tolerable range by
thermoregulation, process by which animals maintain their body temperature within
a normal range.
▪ Endotherms - warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism
o examples are humans and other mammals
▪ Ectotherms - get most of their heat from external sources
o examples are many non-avian reptiles and fishes, amphibians, and most
invertebrates
▪ Endothermy requires a greater expenditure of energy.
▪ Poikilotherms -body temperature may vary with environmental temperature
o largemouth bass
▪ Homeotherms- have relatively constant body temperature
o river otter
Figure 11. Thermoregulation by Internal or External Sources of Heat

Note: A Photo of Thermoregulation by Internal or External Sources of Heat. Adapted from “Campbell
Biology 10th Edition (p.878)” by Reece et al. Copyright 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
In thermoregulation, physiological and behavioral adjustments balance heat gain and
loss, which occur through radiation, evaporation, convection, and conduction.
Figure 12. Heat Exchange Between an Organism and its Environment

Note: A Photo of Heat Exchange Between an Organism and its Environment. Adapted from “Campbell
Biology 10th Edition (p.879)” by Reece et al. Copyright 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.

In many birds and mammals, reducing heat loss from the body relies on
countercurrent exchange, the transfer of heat (or solutes) between fluids that are
flowing in opposite directions.
Certain sharks, fishes, and insects also use countercurrent heat exchange, through
insulation. By keeping the main swimming muscles several degrees warmer than
tissues near the animal’s surface, this adaptation enables the vigorous, sustained
activity that is characteristic of these animals.
Figure 13. Countercurrent Heat Exchangers

Note: A Photo of Heat Exchange Between an Organism and its Environment. Adapted from “Campbell
Biology 10th Edition (p.880)” by Reece et al. Copyright 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Many mammals and birds adjust their amount of body insulation in response to
changes in environmental temperature. Ectotherms undergo a variety of changes at
the cellular level to acclimatize to shifts in temperature.
The hypothalamus, brain region that acts as the thermostat in mammalian regulation
of body temperature. Fever reflects a resetting of this thermostat to a higher normal
range in response to infection.
Figure 14. Thermostatic Function of The Hypothalamus in Human Thermoregulation

Note: A Photo of Heat Exchange Between an Organism and its Environment. Adapted from “Campbell
Biology 10th Edition (p.883)” by Reece et al. Copyright 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Homeostatic Imbalance
Homeostatic mechanisms work continuously to maintain stable conditions in the
human body. Sometimes, however, the mechanisms fail. When they do, homeostatic
imbalance may result, in which cells may not get everything they need or toxic wastes
may accumulate in the body. If homeostasis is not restored, the imbalance may lead
to disease or even death. Examples are:
▪ Diabetes is an example of a disease caused by homeostatic imbalance.
In the case of diabetes, blood glucose levels are no longer regulated and
may be dangerously high. Medical intervention can help restore
homeostasis and possibly prevent permanent damage to the organism.
▪ Normal aging may bring about a reduction in the efficiency of the body’s
control systems. This makes the body more susceptible to disease. For
example, older people may have a harder time regulating their body
temperature. This is one reason they are more likely than younger
people to develop serious heat-induced illnesses such as heat stroke.