CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE
Embedded System
Definition: a specialised computer system designed to perform a specific function within a larger
mechanical system.
Structure:
● A processor
● A memory
● An I/O capability
Advantages:
● They are special-purpose (designed to perform a single, specific task efficiently)
● Due to economies of scale, they become very cheap.
● Modern embedded systems can be connected to the internet (IoT)
Disadvantages:
● When connected to a network (IoT), they are often less protected against hacking
● From the past, if an error was found after the device was made, the chips had to be
physically replaced to fix it.
● The program has to be short as the memory space available is limited → difficult to write.
Memory Components
Random-Access memory (RAM)
Definition: a volatile memory that can be read from or written to repeatedly.
● It loses its stored data when the computer's power is turned off or interrupted.
Types of RAM:
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) - is constructed from capacitors that leak electricity and therefore need
regular recharging (every few milliseconds) to maintain the identity of the data stored.
● use fewer transistors
● cheaper
● higher storage density
Static RAM (SRAM) - is constructed from flip-flops that continue to store data indefinitely while
the computer system is switched on.
● shorter access time
Read-Only memory (ROM)
Definition: non-volatile memory that cannot be written to but can be read from repeatedly, used
to store bootstrap programs.
● It does not lose its stored data when the computer's power is turned off or interrupted.
Types of ROM:
Simple ROM:
● is installed as part of the manufacturing process.
● If different contents are needed the chip must be replaced.
Programmable ROM (PROM):
● Allow the program to be written to by a system builder once.
● After installation, data becomes permanent and cannot be changed or erased
Erasable PROM (EPROM):
● Data/program in place can be deleted using ultraviolet light.
● A new program can be loaded, but the chip must be taken out of the circuit.
Electrically EPROM (EEPROM):
● Electricity is used to remove existing data.
● The chip can stay in the circuit as its contents are modified.
Buffers
Definition: a temporary storage created for data transmitted from one part of the system to
another which functions as a [Link] buffer is created in the computer memory.
Problem: the data can be sent more quickly than it can be received.
→ solution: use a buffer
How it works: Data enters a buffer before being transmitted to its destination.
The buffer functions as a queue so the data emerges in the order that it has entered the buffer.
HDD
● Data is stored magnetically on the surface of spinning platters.
● Each platter is coated with magnetic material, divided into tracks and
sectors.
● A read/write head moves across the platters to access the correct
location.
● When writing to disk, a variation in the current in the head produces a
variation in magnetic field on the disk.
● When reading from disk, a variation in magnetic field produces a
variation in current through the head.
Optical Storage
● Data is stored as a series of pits and lands on the disc surface.
● A laser beam is shone onto the disc as it spins.
● Reflected light differs between pits and lands — this difference represents
binary 1s and 0s.
● A photodiode sensor detects these changes in reflection to read the data.
● On writable discs, a laser alters the surface to create pits that represent
the data being stored.
SSD
● Data is stored using floating-gate transistors that trap or release an
electrical charge (data are stored in memory cell).
● The presence or absence of charge in each cell represents binary 1 or 0.
● Data is read electronically by sensing the charge state of each transistor.
● Data is written or erased in blocks of memory, and there are no moving
parts, so access is very fast.
Compare HDD vs SSD:
Explain how a control system works using sensors and actuators.
● Sensors collect data from the environment (e.g. temperature, light, speed).
● The data is sent to a processor or microcontroller, which compares it to a preset
value.
● If the value is outside the acceptable range, the processor sends a signal to an
actuator.
● The actuator makes a change (e.g. turns on a heater or motor) to bring the
system back to the desired state.