CHAPTER 10: EVOLUTION

THEORY OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

LAMARCK'STHEORY OF INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS

Jean Baptiste de of Lamarck proposed a new theory of organic evolution based upon the principle of use
and disuse of organs in his book “PhilosphieZoologique”.

POSTULATES OF THEORY:

• When the living organisms live in a particular environment that has a great influence on them.
• When living organism migrates from one place to another in a different environment, their
needs and habitats are gradually changed.
• When some changes are developed in body due to effect of environment by these changes
some organs that are widely used become stronger and well developed while some other
organs that are not properly used become weaker and degenerated.
• By use and disuse of organs, some new characters are developed in the body of organism called
acquired characters that are transferred from one generation to another.
• After many generation the changes are accumulated to such extend, that a marked alternation
occurs in the body and it results in the development of new species it is called evolution.

EXAMPLES

• Evolution of Giraffe
• Evolution of Snakes
• Kiwi- evolution of birds.
• Evolution of teeth in whale.
• Evolution of webbed feet of duck.

MAJOR OBJECTIONS:

• Absence of Mutilations in new Generation

• Boring of Holes are not inherited
• Circumcision in Males is not inherited

WEISMANN’S THEORY (GERMINAL CONTINUITY THEORY)

According to this theory:

• Zygote after fertilization of male and female gametes starts development and produce two kinds
of cells called somatic and germ cells.
• When certain changes occur in a somatic cell of the body these are called acquired characters.
These characters do not take part in reproduction.

THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION

Charles Darwin explained the theory in his famous book origin of species by natural selection.

FEATURES:
Over Production:

• Living organisms have fast process of reproduction

• Cod fish produces five to seven millions eggs in seasons.
• A house fly lays one twenty eggs in every six time summer.
• Star fish lays millions of eggs in a year.
• A rabbit breeds at the age of 6 months, he produces six children every four time in one year.
• Elephant is the slowest breeders, he takes part in reproduction about sixty years in his age but
he produces only six children.

Struggle for Existence:

• A logical result of over production is the severe competition for food and space and other
necessities of life, what Darwin called struggle for existence.
• This struggle may be Intraspecific Struggle (between the same kinds of species) or Interspecific
Struggle (between other kinds of species) or Environmental Struggle (against the severe climatic
conditions such as light temperature rain etc).

Variation in Heredity:

Those organisms that show suitable variations continue to exist and reproduce (Favourable variations)
while those that show unfavourable variations are eliminated.

Natural Selection or Survival of Fittest:

In the competition or struggle for existence if an individual is fit for environment it can survive,
otherwise if an individual is unfit it is eliminated. This is natural selection.

Formation of New of Species:

• The individuals which have favorable variations live to maturity and transmit their variations to
offspring.
• This process continues and variations accumulated to such extend that structure of body is
modified. It is known as structural modification through which origin of new species take place.

OBJECTIONS:

• Darwin did not clearly differentiate between heritable and non-heritable variations.
• Darwin had no explanation for the presence of neutral variations which have neither useful nor
harmful effects but exist generation after generation.
• Natural selection theory can’t account for the presence of vestigial organs.
• Natural selection has a key position in evolution but it operates after variations have appeared,
so it accounts for the preservation rather than the origin of favorable variations.
• This theory explains the survival of fittest but does not explain the arrival of fittest.

DE VRIES (1848-1935) - Mutation theory

• He was the first who realized the role of mutation in evolution.

 • He called mutation to discontinuous variations due to which permanent racial changes occurs.
Mutations are sudden heritable changes. They occur in organisms in unpredictable manner they
are caused by environment effects or cross breeding.
• De Vries suggested that mutation affected a change in the nature of germ cells while fluctuation
was because of the effect of environment.
• The credit goes to De Vries for indicating that mutations are the source of variability on which
natural select ion acts.

IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL SELECTION

Genetic Death: It is important from evolutionary point of view because if an individual die before
reproduction, unfavorable genes eliminated from population.

Natural selection is responsible for both maintaining the constancy in species and changing them.

Natural selection is most destructive against those individuals that deviate most widely from the mean
and favor those that align most closely to it. This kind of selection is called Stabilizing Selection.

Natural Selection And Population Genetics:

• As more or less genetically isolated unit of population is known as deme.

• The genetic constitution of demes i.e. the sum of total of all different genes is known as gene
pool.
• The evolutionary future of an individual organism depends on its genetic constitution.
Therefore, the evolution future of an individual again depend upon on its gene pool.

GENE FREQUENCIES

For a given locus, the GENOTYPE FREQUENCIES measure the proportion of each genotype in a
population.

The ALLELE FREQUENCIES measure the proportion of chromosomes that contain a specific allele.

POPULATION GENETICSis a branch of genetics that deals with the frequencies distribution and
inheritance of alleles in population.

HARDY WEIN BERG LAW

H Hardy and W. Weinberg gave a relationship b\w the frequencies of alleles and genotype in population.
It is called Hardy Weinberg equilibrium.

“The frequencies of dominant and recessive alleles in a population will remain constant from
generation to generation provided certain conditions exist”.

OR

“During stable conditions allelic frequencies and their genotype ratios remains constant gene after gene.

P2 + 2pq +q2=1

EVIDENCE IN FAVOUR OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

EVIDENCES FROM FOSSIL RECORD (PALEONTOLOGY):

A fossil is any trace of life form the past Fossil record consists of an entire collection of such remains
form which paleontologists attempt to reconstruct the biology of the organisms whose remain were left
behind.

Example:

Archaeopteryx is a fossil bird had characteristics that show link with reptiles and is a good evidence of
evolutionary pathway leading from reptiles to birds.

EVIDENCE FROM CLASSIFICATION (TAXONOMY):

• Taxonomy is a branch of biology in which various organisms showing resemblance have been
classified and put into groups and subgroups.
• All the members of phylum chordate have a notochords, nerve cord and gills slits at least at
their embryonic stage these resemblance in different groups of chordates like fish amphibians of
their common ancestor in the past.

EVIDENCE FROM HOMOLOGY (COMPARATIVE ANATOMY):

The internal general structural plan is same though their external appearance is very different
performing different functions such remarkably similar structures performing modified functions in
different species are called homologous organs.

Example:

Skeletal system in the wings of bird or bat forelimb of turtle , foreleg of horse, flipper of whale and arm
of man are very similar internally having same type of bones and muscles though they all are
superficially different form each other and perform different functions in different habitat .

EVIDENCE FORM VESTIGIAL ORGANS (VESTIGES):

Vestiges or vestigial organs are those which have ceased to be of any use to their possessor but they
persist in reduced form generation after generation scientists believe these vestiges are retrogressive
organs which were well developed and functional in their ancestors.

Example:

• In whales and snakes pelvic bones are present in the reduced form though both have no hind
limbs for the attachment with these bones.
• Wings of kiwi and ostrich are reduced and serve no useful function, this proves that these
flightless birds have descended from the birds with well-developed wings.
• Splint bones of foot of horse are the remnants of their toes.
• Vestigial organs in man like
• Coccyx is a tail bone or reduced bone which is well developed in other vertebrates
• Vermiform appendix in man is a small finger like reduced caecum. It is a part of digestive tract of
many grazing mammals where cellulose is digested by microorganism.
 • Nictitating membrane is well developed I in birds to clean their eye ball but in humans it is highly
reduced and folded performing no function.
• Ear muscles are well developed in dogs and horses helping them to move their pinna to collect
sound waves from different directions in human beings ear muscles are greatly reduced and
serve no function.

EVIDENCE FROM EMBRYOLOGY:

Detailed comparative embryological study shows that there are similarities between widely separated
animals groups though such animals have markedly different forms and functions

Example: Vertebrate history shows that fishes , salamanders , tortoise , birds , mammals including man
had a common ancestors probably some type of primitive fish, so embryonic development of all these
animals provides one of the best tools to understand evolutionary linkage among animals .

EVIDENCE FROM BIOCHEMISTRY:

• The blood serum contain specific proteins which determine antigen antibody reaction
• Tests of blood sera have shown the proteins relationship b/w man and apes to old world
monkey. The blood proteins of carnivores like cats and dogs are closely related and those of
herbivores like goat, cow, sheep and deer resemble mutually.

EVIDENCE FROM DOMESTICATION:

• Domestication means artificial selection in breeding provides evidence for evolution

• Vast diversity has been achieved domestic dogs and pigeons by artificial selective breeding
procedure over a short period of time by man. This is evidence that evolution is possible.