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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-GEMATH-1STSEM-2021-2022

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

Bayombong Campus

DEGREE BSCS/BSIS/BSBIO COURSE NO. GE MATH

PROGRAM BCAED/BSABE/BSIT
SPECIALIZATION COURSE TITLE MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
YEAR LEVEL FIRST YEAR TIME FRAME 10 HRS WK NO. 3 - 5 IM NO. 2

I. CHAPTER 2 - Mathematical Language and Symbols

II. LESSON TITLE

A. Characteristics of mathematical language: precise, concise and powerful.
B. Expressions vs. sentence
C. Conventions in the mathematical language
D. Four basic concepts: sets, function& relations, binary operations
E. The Real Number and Its properties

I. LESSON OVERVIEW

Language is the system of words, signs and symbols which people use to express ideas,
thoughts and feelings. Language consists of the words, their pronunciation and the methods of
combining them to be understood by a community. Language is a systematic means of communicating
ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures or marks having understood
meanings (Merriam-Webster, 2017).

II. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

The students should be able to: 1) discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of
mathematics; 2) explain the nature of mathematics as a language; 3) perform operations on
mathematical expressions correctly; and 4) acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language.

III. LESSON CONTENT

Every science has its own lingo and word usage. Mathematical language is the system use to
communicate mathematical ideas. The language mathematics is more precise than any other language
one may think of. Like other languages, it has its own grammar, syntax, vocabulary, word order,
synonyms, negations, conventions, idioms, abbreviations, sentence structure and paragraph structure.
It has certain language features unparalleled in other languages, such as representation. The language
also includes a large component of logic. The ordinary language which gradually expands to comprise
symbolism and logic leads to learning of mathematics and its useful application to problem situations.
The use of apt language is the key to making mathematics comprehensible and
understandable. This language consists of a substrate of ordinary language using technical terms and
grammatical convention that are peculiar to mathematical discussions, supplemented by highly
specialized symbolic notations for mathematical formulae. More advance courses such as geometry,
discrete mathematics and abstract algebra are concerned not just with manipulating symbols and
solving equations but with understanding the interrelationships among sophisticated concepts. The
language of mathematics can ably explain and express all these.
All human languages have grammatical structures that distinguish between nouns and verbs.
These structures express the difference between the objects themselves and the actions carried out by
or an objects. Numbers, measurements, shapes, spaces, functions, patterns, data and arrangement s

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are regarded as mathematical nouns, or objects while mathematical verbs maybe considered as the
four main actions attributed to problem-solving and reasoning. These actions represent the process one
goes thru to solve a problem.

 Modelling and formulating: Creating appropriate representations and relationships to

mathematical the original problem.
 Transforming and manipulating: Changing the mathematical form in which a problem is
originally expressed to equivalent forms that represent solutions.
 Inferring: Applying derived results to the original problem situation, and interpreting and
generalizing the results in that light.
 Communicating: Reporting what has been learned about a problem to a specified audience.

Definitely, mathematics is a language. Expertise in this language can be gained by long and
carefully supervised experiences on its usage and application.

A. Characteristics of Mathematical Language

Mathematics is about ideas – relationships, quantities, processes, measurements, reasoning

and so on. The use of language in mathematics differs from the language of ordinary speech in three
important ways (Jamison, 2000).

 First, mathematical language is non-temporal. There is no past, present or future in

mathematics.
 Second, mathematical language is devoid of emotional content.
 Third, mathematical language is precise.

The advantage of mathematical notation, both symbolic and graphical id that it is highly
compact (conveying a lot of information and ideas very little space) and focused (conveying the
important information for the current situation and omitting the rest). For learners, this can also be a
disadvantage, because one little symbol can refer to so many ideas (Developing Mathematical
Language, 2016).

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While students learn how to do math, they must also learn how to say and articulate what they
learn. They must learn to recognize and answer “why” questions so that they will develop problem
solving skills. It is most important to learn the concepts and use the symbolism as a tool of
communication.

Vocabulary understanding is a major contributor to overall comprehension in many content

areas, including mathematics. Effective methods for teaching vocabulary in all content areas are
diverse and long standing. Teaching and learning the language of mathematics is vital for the
development of mathematical proficiency. Students’ mathematical vocabulary learning is a very
important part of their language development and ultimately mathematical proficiency (Riccomini,
Smith, Hughes and Fries, 2015).

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Once students understand how things are said, they can better understand what is being said,
and only then do they have a chance to know why it I said. Regrettably, many people see mathematics
only as a collection of arcane rules for manipulating bizarre symbols – something far removed from
speech and writing. Probably, this results from the fact that most elementary mathematics courses –
arithmetic in elementary school, algebra and trigonometry in high school, and calculus in college – are
procedural courses focusing on techniques for working with numbers, symbols, and equations.
Although this formal technique is important, formulae re not ends in themselves but derive their real
importance only as vehicles for expression of deeper mathematical thoughts. More advance courses –
such as geometry, discrete mathematics, and abstract algebra – are concerned not just with
manipulating symbols and solving equations but with understanding the interrelationships among a
whole host of sophisticated concepts (Jamison, 2000).

As children develop their capacity for understanding, they can better understanding, language
and its vocabulary becomes vital cognitive link between a child’s natural sense of number and order
and conceptual learning. Mathematics is a language in itself and mathematical language is precise,
concise and powerful. Likewise, it is clear and objective.

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B. Mathematical Expressions and Sentences

One of the objectives in learning mathematics is for students to be able to confidently speak
about it. It is important that students are competent to discuss ideas and explain how they solve
mathematics problems or what the consequences and possibilities are if they use the wrong process.
Math words, expressions and sentences can help students explain what they think. Precise math term
to achieve better understanding and deeper appreciation of mathematics.

It is essential to recognize the parts that make up a mathematical expression, as well as the
basic vocabulary used when discussing mathematical expressions.

Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are operations that

can make up a mathematical expression. Given in the table below are
the words or phrases which are indicated of the four operations.

Table 1. Operational Terms and Symbols

Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division

[+] [-] [x, ( ), *] [ ÷, / ]
Plus minus multiplied by divided by
the sum of the difference of the product of the quotient of
increased by decreased by times per
total subtracted from of the ratio
added to less
less than

Mathematical expressions consist of terms. The term of a mathematical expression is

separated from other terms with either plus or minus signs. A single term may contain an expression in
parenthesis or other grouping symbols.

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An algebraic expression is a quantity which contains numbers and variable. Variables are
letters are used to represent numbers, it is also called literal coefficient, represents the unknown and
make use of letters. The number with the variable is the numerical coefficient. Any number is called a
constant. In the expression 10x + 11, the numerical coefficient of x is the number 10 while x is the
literal coefficient of 10; and it means 10 times x plus 11. The number 11 is a constant.

For example, 21(x – 8) has 1 term, thus, it is called a monomial. On the other hand, 5x + 12y
has two terms, while 3x +2(x + y) – 36 has three terms. These two expressions are referred to as
binomial and trinomial, respectively. A mathematical expression with more than two terms is called
polynomial. A trinomial is a polynomial.

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A mathematical sentence combines two mathematical expressions using a comparison

operator. These expressions either use variables, or both. The comparison operators include equal, not
equal, greater than or equal to, less than and less than or equal to. The signs which convey equality or
inequality are also called relation symbols because they specify how to expressions are related. A
mathematical expression containing the equal sign is an equation. The two parts of an equation are
called it members. A mathematical expression containing inequality signs is an inequality.

Examples of Mathematical Sentences:

Equations:
 4x + 3 = 19
 6y – 5 = 55
 10 + 1 = m
 (x y z) 3 = 1
 58 – q = 25
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Inequalities:
 15x – 5 < 3y
 18 > 16.5
 99 < x
 10 > 5xyz
 a + b + c < 999

An open sentence in math means that is uses variables, meaning that is not known whether or
not the mathematical sentence is true or false. A closed sentence, on the other hand, is a
mathematical sentence that is known to be either true or false.

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C. Conventions in the Mathematical Language

Symbols are important in mathematical works. It is therefore necessary to understood how vital
it is to be precise about symbols. Variables are another form of mathematical symbols. To understand
the meaning of math symbols, there are two thing to consider, namely: context and convention.

 Context refers to a particular topics being studied and it is important to understand the context
to understand mathematical symbols.

 Convention – is a technique use by mathematicians, engineers, scientists which each

particular symbol has particular meaning.

The position of numbers and symbols in relation to each other has a bearing on their meanings.
Usage of subscripts and superscripts I also an important convention.

In mathematics, engineering, science, and other areas, Greek and Latin letters are used as a
symbols for physical quantities and special functions: and conventionally, for variable representing
certain quantities. Greek letters are used in many calculation. For example, the Greek letter π (pi) is
used to represent the number 3.14159. We often use α (alpha), β (beta) and θ (theta) to represent
angles. The Greek capital letter ∑ (sigma) is frequently used to represent the summation of several
numbers.

For instances, the uppercase letter C is used as conventional symbol for carbon, degrees
Celsius, set of complex numbers, coulomb, molar heat capacity, the C programming language, specific
het capacity and Cunningham correction actor. On the other hand, the lower case letter c is used as
conventional symbol for the prefix centi-, speed of light, Charm quark and speed of sound.

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

5 = 2+3
= equals sign equality
5 is equal to 2+3
5≠4
≠ not equal sign inequality
5 is not equal to 4
sin(0.01) ≈ 0.01,
approximately
≈ approximation x ≈ y means x is approximately
equal
equal to y
5>4
> strict inequality greater than
5 is greater than 4
4<5
< strict inequality less than
4 is less than 5
5 ≥ 4,
greater than or equal
≥ inequality x ≥ y means x is greater than
to
or equal to y
4 ≤ 5,
≤ inequality less than or equal to x ≤ y means x is less than or
equal to y
calculate expression
() parentheses 2 × (3+5) = 16
inside first

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Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

calculate expression
[] brackets [(1+2)×(1+5)] = 18
inside first
+ plus sign addition 1+1=2
− minus sign subtraction 2−1=1
both plus and minus
± plus - minus 3 ± 5 = 8 or -2
operations

3 ∓ 5 = -2 or 8
both minus and plus
± minus - plus
operations
* asterisk multiplication 2*3=6
× times sign multiplication 2×3=6

⋅ 2⋅3=6
multiplication
multiplication
dot
division sign /
÷ division 6÷2=3
obelus
/ division slash division 6/2=3

— horizontal line division / fraction

mod modulo remainder calculation 7 mod 2 = 1

decimal point, decimal
. period 2.56 = 2+56/100
separator
ab power exponent 23 = 8
a^b caret exponent 2 ^ 3= 8
√a square root √a ⋅ √a = a √9 = ±3
3
√a cube root 3
√a ⋅ 3√a ⋅ 3√a = a 3
√8 = 2

4 √a ⋅ 4√a ⋅ 4√a ⋅ 4√a

4
4
√a fourth root √16 = ±2
=a

n n-th root
√a for n=3, n√8 = 2
(radical)
% percent 1% = 1/100 10% × 30 = 3
‰ per-mille 1‰ = 1/1000 = 0.1% 10‰ × 30 = 0.3

D. FOUR BASIC CONCEPTS: sets, functions, relations, and binary operations

D.1 SETS

A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. The objects that make up set (also known
as the set’s element or members) can be numbers, people, letters of the alphabet, other sets, etc. Sets

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are conventionally named with capital letters. There is a simple notation for sets. Braces are usually
used to specify the objects written between them belong to a set.

An element of a set is usually denoted by a lower case letter. The symbol ∈ denotes
membership while ∉ denotes non – membership to a set. Thus, x ∈ A, read as x is an element of A,
means that x can be found on set A while x ∉ A, read as x is not an element of A, means that x does
not belong to set A.

D.1.1 There are two ways to described a set, namely:

 In the Roster/Tabular Method, the elements in the given set are listed or enumerated,
separated by a comma, inside a pair of braces.

 In the Rule/descriptive Method, the common characteristic of the elements are defined. This
method uses set builder notation where x is used to represent any element of the given set.

For example: V is the set of vowels.

Rule/Descriptive Method: V = {x/x is a vowel in the English Alphabet}
Roster/Tabular Method: V = {a, e, I, o, u}

D.1.2. The following are kinds of sets:

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D.1.3. Two or more sets may be related to each other as described by the following:

*It can be noted equal sets are equivalent sets; however, not all equivalent sets are equal sets.

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D.1.4. A subset is a set of every element of which can be found on a bigger set. The symbol ⊂ means
“a subset of” while ⊄ means “not a subset of”. If the first set equals the second set, then it is an
improper subset. The symbol ⊆ is used to mean an improper subset. A null set is always a subset of
any set and is considered an improper subset of the given set. Other than the set itself and the null set,
all are considered proper subsets. The set containing all the subsets of the given set with n number of
elements is called the power set with 2n number of elements.

D.1.5. There are four operations performed on sets. Suppose, we named the two set as set A and set
B, then:

 Union of Sets A and B [denoted by A ∪ B] is a set whose elements are A or B or in both.

In symbol: A ∪ B={ x∨x ∈ A∨x ∈ B }

 Intersection of sets A and B [denoted by A ∩ B] is a set whose elements are common to both
sets.
In symbol: A ∩ B={ x∨x ∈ A∧x ∈ B }

 Difference of sets A and B [denoted by A – B] is a set whose elements are found in set A but
not in set B.
In symbol: A−B={x∨x ∈ A∧x ∉ B }

 Complement of Set A [denoted by A’] is a set whose elements are found in the universal set
but not in set A.
In symbol: B' ={x∨x ∈U ∧x ∉ B }

1. A  B = list all the elements of Set A and Set B without repetition

. AB=

2. B  C = list the common (same) elements of the two sets

BC=

3. C  D = list all the elements of Set C and Set D without repetition

C  D=

4. A  D = list all the elements of Set A and Set D without repetition

AD=

5. p(D) = power set of D is 2 raised to the number of elements of the given set
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p(D) =

6. complement of (A  C) = list all elements in the universal set except from Set A and Set C
(A  C)c =

7. n(B  C) = the cardinality of the elements of Set B and Set C without repetition
n(B  C) =

8. p(B  C) = the power of the union of Sets B and Set C

p(B  C) =

D.1.6. The pictorial representation of relationship and operations of sets is the so-called Venn-Euler
Diagrams or simply Venn Diagrams. The universal set is usually represented by a rectangle while
circles within the rectangle usually represent its subsets.

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D.2. RELATION AND FUNCTION

D.2.1 A relation is a set of inputs and outputs, oftentimes expressed as ordered pairs (input, output). A
relation is a rule which associates each element of the first set (Set A) with at least one element in the
second (Set B).

It can be represented as a mapping diagram or a graph. Mapping or pairing from domain to the
range is one way to show correspondence in a relation.

For example, a relation can be represented as:

Input Output

Figure 2.1. Mapping Diagram of Relation

In which the lines connect the inputs with their outputs. The relation can also be represented as:

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Figure 2.2. Graph of Relation

A function is a relation in which each input has only one output. A function is a rule which
uniquely associates elements of the first set (Set A) with the elements of the second set (Set B); each
element in Set A maps to only one element in Set B.

D.2.2. A function is a relation where the second element y, is unique for a specific value of the first
element x in the ordered pair (x, y). In other words, in the pairing between the elements of two sets X
and Y, each pair should have a different y for every x.

D.2.3. How to recognize when a relation is not a function:

1. When an x-coordinate has two different pairs.

Example: {(2,1), (3,1), (4, 1)} {(1,2), (1,3), (5,4)}

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2. When y has an even exponent in an equation except when equated to 0; that is, yn = 0, n is a
positive integer, is still a function.
Example: y = x2 y2 = 0 x = y2 x2 + y2 = 1
3. When y is enclosed in an absolute value except when equated to 0; that is, |y| = 0 is still a
function.
Example: y = |x| |y| = 0 x = |y| |y| = 2 |x| + |y| = 1
4. When y is absent from the equation.
Example: x=5 x – 25 = 0
5. When the statement is an inequality.
Example: x+y<1 x+y<1 x+y>1 x+y>1

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D.3 BINARY OPERATIONS

A binary operation is a rule for combining two values to produce a new value. The most widely
known binary operations are those learned in elementary school: addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division on various sets of numbers.

A binary operation f (x, y) is an operation that applies to two quantities or expressions x and y.
There are many binary operations on real numbers. Such operations take two real numbers and create
another real numbers.

A binary operation is said to be commutative if the order of the arguments is changed and the
result is equivalent. Likewise, a binary operation is said to be associative if the order of the parentheses
is changed and the result is equivalent.

An element, denoted as e, is said to be an identity or neutral element of a binary operation if

under the operation, any element combined with e results in the same element.

For an element, the inverse represented as a-1, when combined with a under the binary
operation results in the identity element for that binary operation.

In mathematics, a binary operation on a set is a calculation that combines two elements of the
set (called operands) to yield another element of the set.

Typical examples of binary operation are the addition and multiplication of numbers and
matrices, as well as composition of functions on a single set. For instance:

 On the set of real numbers R, f (a, b) =a + b is a binary operation since the sum of two real
numbers is a real number.

 On the set of natural numbers N, f (a, b) = a + b is a binary operation since the sum of two
natural numbers is a natural number. This is different binary operation than the previous one
since the sets are different.

 On the set M (2, 2) of 2 x 2 matrices with real entries, f (A, B) = A + B is a binary operation
since the sum of two such matrices is another 2 x 2 matrix.

 On the set M (2, 2) of 2 x 2 matrices with real entries, f (A, B) = AB is a binary operation
since the product of two such matrices is another 2 x 2 matrix.

 For a given set C, let S be the set of all functions h : C → C. Define f : S x S → S by f

( h 1 , h2 ) ( c )=( h1 , h2 ) ( c )=h1 (h2 ( c )) for all c ∈C , the composition of the two functions h1 and h2 in S.
Then f is a binary operation since the composition of the two functions is another function on the
set C 9 that is, a member of S).

Many binary operations of interest in both algebra and formal logic are commutative, satisfying
f (a, b) = f (b, a) for all elements a and b in S, or associative, satisfying f [f (a, b), c] = f [a, f(b, c)] for all
a, b and c in S. Many also have identity elements and inverse elements. The first tree examples
above are commutative and all of the above examples are associative.

E. The Real Numbers and Its Properties

Real numbers are simply the combination of rational and irrational numbers, in the number
system. In general, all the arithmetic operations can be performed on these numbers and they can be
represented in the number line, also. At the same time, the imaginary numbers are the un-real
numbers, which cannot be expressed in the number line and is commonly used to represent a complex
number.

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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-GEMATH-1STSEM-2021-2022

Real numbers can be defined as the union of both the rational and irrational numbers. They can
be both positive or negative and are denoted by the symbol “R”. All the natural numbers, decimals and
fractions come under this category. See the figure, given below, which shows the classification of real
numerals.

Properties of Real Numbers

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 19 of 21

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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-GEMATH-1STSEM-2021-2022

There are four main properties which include commutative property, associative property,
distributive property and identity property. Consider “m, n and r” are three real numbers. Then the
above properties can be described using m, n, and r as shown below:

1. Commutative Property

If m and n are the numbers, then the general form will be m + n = n + m for addition and m.n = n.m for
multiplication.

 Addition: m + n = n + m. For example, 5 + 3 = 3 + 5, 2 + 4 = 4 + 2

 Multiplication: m × n = n × m. For example, 5 × 3 = 3 × 5, 2 × 4 = 4 × 2

2. Associative Property
If m, n and r are the numbers. The general form will be m + (n + r) = (m + n) + r for addition(mn)
r = m (nr) for multiplication.

 Addition: The general form will be m + (n + r) = (m + n) + r. An example of additive associative

property is 10 + (3 + 2) = (10 + 3) + 2.
 Multiplication: (mn) r = m (nr). An example of a multiplicative associative property is (2 × 3) 4 =
2 (3 × 4).

3. Distributive Property
For three numbers m, n, and r, which are real in nature, the distributive property is represented
as: m (n + r) = mn + mr and (m + n) r = mr + nr.

 Example of distributive property is: 5(2 + 3) = 5 × 2 + 5 × 3. Here, both sides will yield 25.

4. Identity Property
There are additive and multiplicative identities.

 For addition: m + 0 = m. (0 is the additive identity)

 For multiplication: m × 1 = 1 × m = m. (1 is the multiplicative identity)

5. Existence of Inverse
There are additive and multiplicative inverse.

 For addition: m + (-m) = 0. (-m is the additive inverse)

 For multiplication: m × (1/m) = (1/m) × m = 1. (1/m is the multiplicative inverse)

Generalization

1. Mathematics is a language in itself. Hence, it is useful in communicating important mathematical

ideas. Like any language, mathematics has its own symbols, syntax and rules.
2. Mathematical language is precise, concise and powerful. Likewise, it is clear and objective.
3. Precise mathematical words or terms, expressions and sentences can help students achieve better
understandings and deeper appreciation of mathematics.
4. Language conventions are necessary in mathematics for it to be understood by all. To understand the
meaning of math symbols, there are two things to consider, namely: context and convention.

IV. LEARNING ACTIVITIES/ASSIGNMENT

RESEARCH
Your goal in this section is to develop your understanding in the language
of mathematics and knowing its classifications.
NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 20 of 21
“In accordance with Section 185. Fair Use of a Copyrighted Work of Republic Act 8293, the copyrighted works included
in this material may be reproduced for educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution.
 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-GEMATH-1STSEM-2021-2022

ASSIGNMENT 1: Learning through Viewing!

 The Language of Mathematics

 [Link]
1. Three things that I significantly learned from the video clip
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

2. Three things that are still unclear to me

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. I used to think that
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

4. Three questions that I want to ask about the video clips

_________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

ASSIGNMENT 2: Essay!

Instructions: Discuss the characteristics of the language of mathematics in two to three sentences and
1. The Language of Mathematics is Precise.
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Example:
___________________________________________________________________________
2. The Language of Mathematics is Concise.
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Example:
___________________________________________________________________________
3. The Language of Mathematics is Powerful.
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Example:
___________________________________________________________________________

V. REFERENCES

 Readings
 Aufmann, Richard. [Link]. (2018) Mathematical in the modern world (Philippine ed.). RBSI, 856 Nicanor Reyes
Sr. St. Sampaloc Manila
 Earnhart, Richard T. & Adlina, Edgar M. (2018) Mathematics in the modern world. Quezon City: C & E
Publishing, Inc.
 Manululu, Esmeralda [Link]. (2020), A course model for Mathematics in the Modern World, RBSI, 856 Nicanor
Reyes Sr. St. Sampaloc Manila

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 21 of 21

“In accordance with Section 185. Fair Use of a Copyrighted Work of Republic Act 8293, the copyrighted works included
in this material may be reproduced for educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution.
 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-GEMATH-1STSEM-2021-2022

 Nocon, Rizaldi C. & Nocon, Ederlinda G. (2018). Essential Mathematics for Modern World. Quezon City: C &
E publishing House Inc.
 Document
 [Link]

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 22 of 21

“In accordance with Section 185. Fair Use of a Copyrighted Work of Republic Act 8293, the copyrighted works included
in this material may be reproduced for educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution.