Section A

Longitude and Latitude

● Cartography - The study of maps
● Cartographer - A person who draws or produces maps
● Atlas - A book of maps
● Latitude - Distance of a place north of south of the equator
○ Run across the map horizontally
○ Distance is measured in degrees
○ 90° of latitude between equator and North Pole and same applies
to South Pole
● Equator - The 0° line that separates the world into the Northern and the
Southern Hemispheres
● Longitude - Distance from the Prime meridian to the International date
line
○ 180° found on both sides of Prime Meridian and International date
line (Eastward and Westward)
● Prime Meridian - A line of longitude on a map found at 0° and running
north to south from the North and the South Pole
● International date line - A line running from the north to the South Pole
that determines the start of a new day

● Earth’s tilt (axis) - 23.4°

Degrees and minutes

1° = 60’
1’ = 60”
 1. See whether it is dealing with the North or the South Hemisphere (The
increments are increasing as we're going up so it’s the Northern
Hemisphere)
2. Figure out the answer for the latitude (A = 35°09’N)
3. See whether it is dealing with the eastern or the Western Hemisphere
(The increments are increasing as were going left and the eastern
hemisphere is on the left so it’s the Eastern hemisphere)
4. Figure out the answer for longitude (A = 17°31’E)
5. Whole answer = 35°09’N 17°31’E

NOTE : If the letter is in the middle of a row then use the number in that row
and use seconds
E.g B = 35°08’30”N (Half of 60 seconds is 30 seconds and the B is still in the 08
column)

Atlas
● Index - An alphabetical list of names or places at the back of a book
○ e.g Johannesburg (Place) tn (town) SA (country) 37 (page) C6 (grid
reference)26 12S (latitude) 28 02E (longitude)

Abbreviations
 ● Country ©
● Town (t) (tn)
● Mountains (m) (mtn)
● Rivers ®
● Desert (d)
● Bay (b)
● Island (i)
● Dam (d)
● Volcano (vol)
● Geographical region (geog reg)
● Peninsula (penin)
● Lake (l)
● Nature reserve (nat res)
● Depression (dep)
● Plateau (plat)
● Sound (sd)
● National park (nat park)
● Game reserve (game res)

Ratio
● Word scale : Tells you how to work out the distance of the map and it is a
sentence (1cm on the map represents 10km on the ground)
● Line scale : The line scale is the thin line at the bottom of a map
● Shows the measurements that represent kilometers on the earth’s
surface

● Ratio scale: (1:50 000)

■ 1cm represents 50 000cm
■ 4.5 cm x 50 000 = 225 000cm
■ 225 000/100000 = 2,25km
● E.g 1:30 000 000
● The bigger the number the less detail there is on the map (zoomed out)
○ Bigger number = Smaller scale
○ Less detail
○ More area
● E.g 1:50 000
● The smaller the number the more detail there is on the map (zoomed in)
○ Smaller number = Large scale
○ More detail
○ Less area

Section B

Time Zones
● If a place is to the east of you then their time is later than yours
● If a place is to the west of you then their time is earlier than yours
1. Find the longitude for both places
2. Calculate how many “bunny hops” it takes to go from one place to
another
3. Subtract that answer from the place you’re trying to get the original time
from
4. That’s your original time (Make sure to use the correct date, time and
standard time)

● Solstice - The times of the year when we have the longest day of the year
and the short night or when we have the longest night and the shortest
day
○ Happen midsummer and midwinter (21 June and 21 December)
● Equinox - The times of the year when days and nights are equal in
length and the sun is directly in line with the equator
 ○ Happens twice a year - Autumn and Spring (20 March and 23
September)

Word Bank
● Satellite images - Photographs of the earth’s surface
● Satellite - An object that orbits the earth and is used to send messages
and take photographs of the conditions on the earth’s surface
● True colour - The colours on a satellite image that we expect (e.g Forest
= Green)
● False colour - The colours that you wouldn’t expect
○ This can be an infrared image
○ Red : Vegetation , the more plants the redder the colour
○ Brown : The location of sparse vegetation
○ Blue : Blue - Muddy water
■ Black - Clear water
○ Grey : Urban areas with buildings
○ Light grey or white : Clouds
● Thermal image - A photo of different temperatures
○ Different temperatures = Different colours
● Erosion - The breaking down of soil and rock material
● Deforestation - To cut down or clear away trees in a forest
● Urban sprawl - Where urban areas spread out into areas of vegetation
● Cloud patterns - Information on a satellite image on the different types
of possible rain and the types of storms
● Hurricanes - The name given to a tropical cyclone in North and South
America
○ A powerful storm that occurs in tropical areas near the equator

Water
● Info about water on satellite = Info about floods, flood levels, the flow of
rivers, positions of dams and rainfall patterns + droughts

Vegetation
● Info about vegetation on satellite = Info about types of vegetation,
farmlands, destruction of vegetation (due to droughts) and fires +
erosion

Land use
● Info about land use of satellite = Info about farming, fishing, mining,
forestry, factories, towns, cities and reserves

Satellite images usage

● Used mostly for looking at what is happening now so that plans can be
made for the future
○ Over a short period of natural disasters
 ○ Over a long period of deforestation, erosion
■ This info helps people reduce the influence, damage and
loss of life

The curve of the earth

● Curve of the earth - Important affect on temperature
● Sun rays strike the earth’s surface at 90° = Strong heating
● Sun rays strike the earth’s surface at less than 45° = Less strong heating
Climatology
● Meteorology - Study of weather
○ Caused by movement/transfer of energy
○ Energy transferred where there is a temperature difference
between two objects
● Convection - The transfer of energy through the movement of air in the
atmosphere
● Climate - The study of atmospheric conditions over a long period of
time (20 - 30 years)

Water cycle
● Water from the ocean is heated by the suns rays
○ The heat causes the water to change into water vapor
○ This process is evaporation
○ Evaporation causes the air to be moist which causes it to be
humid
■ Humidity - The amount of water vapor in the air
○ As the air rises the air cools down turning in back into water
■ This process is called condensation
○ Water droplets form clouds and once they are heavy enough they
fall down
■ This process is called precipitation (e.g Snow, hail, rain, dew)
○ The water falls down the mountains back to the ocean
■ Cycle starts all over again
 ○ Water can also fall into plants and then evaporate
■ This process is called transpiration

Instruments used for weather

1. Thermometer - Temperature
2. Barometer - Air pressure (hPa)
○ When the air pressure rises it causes rain
3. Rain gauge - Amount of precipitation (in mm)
4. Weather vane - Wind direction
5. Anemometer - Wind speed
6. Hygrometer - Humidity

Clouds
● Clouds form when the air cools and condenses into water
○ There are found in the troposphere
● Cumulus - Formed through upward movement of air
○ Usually heaped or puffy in appearance
● Stratus - When the air is cool enough to condense but with no air
movement
○ Usually low grey clouds bringing rain
● Towering clouds - Fair clouds that can build up to become
cumulonimbus clouds
○ Cumulonimbus clouds - Cause highveld electric storms
● Low clouds - Clouds that are found 2000m above the ground
○ Stratus clouds are fog like in appearance and they bring drizzle
○ Nimbostratus clouds become dark and bring more rain with
height
● Middle clouds :
○ Altocumulus + Altostratus clouds - Sheet clouds
○ Occur at a height of 2000m - 6000m
● High clouds - Reach up to a height of 17 000m
○ Made out of ice crystals
○ Cirrus clouds - Appearance of a whispery of veil
■ They are very thin and sunlight can pass through them
(translucent)

Wind
● Wind is moving air
● The difference in temperature causes wind
● Wind measured using an anemometer, wind sock or wind vane
○ Wind measured in knots, km/h or degrees
○ It is named in the direction it’s coming from (e.g Wind coming from
the North East = North Easterly wind)

Temperature
1. Latitude and Longitude
● Places closest to the equator = The most rainfall
● Places closest to the poles = The least rainfall
● Rainfall + Temperature relationship - As temperature increases rainfall
increases
● Places closer to the equator receive direct sunlight
○ It is concentrated (close together) and not spread out
● North + South Poles have less powerful sunlight because of the curve of
the earth’s surface
○ Sun’s heat is spread over a larger area

2. Altitude
● The higher you climb the colder it gets
● Formula - Increase in altitude = decrease in temperature

3. Oceans
● Ocean current (Indian ocean) pushes warm water from the equator
down/up to the poles
○ This ocean current is called the Agulhas current
● Atlantic Ocean pushes cold water from the poles to the equator
○ This ocean current is called the Benguela current (e.g Port
Nolloth)
● If your closer to the sea there is more rainfall (e.g Durban )
○ Exception - PE is close to the sea but Durban is closer to the
equator so they get more rainfall
○ Drought - Using more water than what is available/Shortage of
water

4. Wind
● Wind balances out the earth’s temperature
○ Wind causes ocean currents
● Warm air from the equator gets pushed down
● Cold air from the poles gets pushed up making them crash into each
● This makes the equator not get too hot and the poles not get too cold

5. Aspect
● Depending on what hemisphere you are located in, temperatures vary
according to the aspect of slope (either facing the sun or away from the
sun)
Climate Regions

Tropical regions
● Warm moist climate and thick forest vegetation
● Found mostly on the equator - Equatorial rain forests (e.g Amazon)
○ Heavy rainfall almost everyday
■ Reason : The forest vegetation must be able to grow so
plants have adapted to this region
○ NOTE : High humidity because the air is warm and evaporation
occurs
Subtropical regions
● Mostly hot and humid with short cool winters (e.g KZN grows bananas,
mangos and sugarcane)
● NOTE : High humidity because the air is warm and evaporation occurs

Temperate regions
● Can be cool or warm regions that fall anywhere in the middle latitudes
● Never have extreme temperatures
○ Vegetation regions are varied
○ Temperate forests in humid regions and temperate grasslands in
drier regions
○ NOTE : Humidity will change from high in rainy seasons to low in
dry season (Warm summers and cool winters)

Hot desert regions

● Get very little rainfall
○ Plants are adapted to living with very little rainfall
● Caused by high pressure systems that prevent rainfall, ocean currents
or a rain shadow effect
○ NOTE : Very little humidity

Polar or cold desert regions

● Cold temperatures reduce the atmospheres ability to hold water spout =
Very Dry
● Precipitation in any form is very rare

Semi desert regions

● Not a proper desert but it’s a part of it the desert that receives a small
amount of rainfall, usually in summer
● Types of plants found here are low to the ground
○ Have adapted to extreme temperatures and dryness
● People can live in these areas but not in large numbers due to lack of
water
○ In South Africa these regions are used for sheep or goat farming

Continental regions
● Interior regions
● They mostly have extreme temperatures
● Have very hot summers and very cold winters
● Humidity - High rainy seasons and low dry seasons
● NOTE : No matter where you are in the world as long as you are far away
from the sea you will get extreme temperatures

Mediterranean regions
● Typically have warm to hot dry summers and cool wet winters
● In South Africa, the plants in the western cape have adapted to cope
with dry summers
 ○ Fynbos - A special type of vegetation found only in the southern
tip of Africa (e.g Shrubs and small trees)
○ Burns quickly but it has adapted to that environment so the roots
burn so they can rejuvenate
○ Grow in the South West Cape in a small region within the western
cape

Tundra regions
● Occur where ground is permanently frozen
○ Occur 60° North and South where there’s mainly ocean
○ Near the poles at very high altitudes
● Plants can’t grow very tall
● Usually covered in snow in winter and have a short summer where the
plants can grow
● Plants and animals have adapted to very cold conditions
○ NOTE : Low humidity because the air is so cold so little
evaporation of moisture takes place

High mountain regions or alpine regions

● Top of the highest mountains in the world and high altitudes have a
climate like polar and tundra regions
● Mountain is high enough - Top will be permanently under a layer of ice
● Below the ice cap - Climate is the same as in the tundra region
● Temperatures are cool
● Plants and animals have adapted to the cold
● NOTE : Cool temperatures in summer and cold freezing temperatures in
winter

Temperature and rainfall characteristics of different kinds of climate (bar and

line graphs)
● Temperatures is shown in a line graph
● Rainfall is shown in a bar graph