Module 4:

➔ Source Coding Source coding theorems I and II (Statements

only).
➔ Waveform coding. Sampling and Quantization. Pulse code
Modulation, Transmitter and receiver.
➔ Companding. A and mu-law companders.
➔ DPCM transmitter and receiver.
➔ Design of linear predictor.
➔ Delta modulation. Slope overload
Digital communication system …
1. Information Source
● The origin of the message: speech, image, video, text, or data.

● Produces the information signal that needs to be transmitted

2. Source Encoder (Source Coding)

● Converts the information into a digital bit stream.

● Removes redundancy and represents the message efficiently.

● Examples: PCM (Pulse Code Modulation), JPEG, MP3, MPEG

Digital communication system …
3. Channel Encoder (Error Control Coding)
● Adds controlled redundancy to protect against errors caused by noise or interference in the channel.

● Common techniques: Parity check, Hamming code, Convolutional codes, Turbo codes, LDPC.

● Ensures reliability of transmission.

4. Modulator
● Converts the digital bit stream into a form suitable for transmission over the physical channel.

● Maps bits to waveforms (symbols) using modulation schemes.

● Examples: ASK, PSK, FSK, QAM

Digital communication system …
5. Channel
● The physical medium between transmitter and receiver.

● Could be wireless (air), fiber optic cable, satellite, or copper wire.

● Subject to attenuation, distortion, and noise (AWGN, fading).

6. Demodulator
● Extracts the received waveform from the channel.

● Converts it back into the digital sequence of symbols (bits) affected by noise.
Digital communication system …
7. Channel Decoder
● Detects and corrects errors introduced by the channel.

● Uses redundancy added by channel encoder to reconstruct the original sequence.

8. Source Decoder
● Reconstructs the original message from the encoded data.

● Performs decompression or reconstruction.

● Example: Decoding compressed speech, decompressing an image.

Digital communication system
9. Destination
● Final user or system that consumes the information.

● Could be a speaker (for audio), display (for images/video), or computer (for data)
Source coding
The Code produced by a discrete memoryless source, has to be efficiently represented, which is an important problem in
communications.

Source coding is the process of efficiently representing information from a source (e.g., speech, image, video, or data) into a digital
form using as few bits as possible while preserving the essential information.

It is the first step in a digital communication system, where the goal is to reduce redundancy and make the signal suitable for
transmission or storage.
Source coding theorem(Shanon’s First theorem)
Statement

A discrete memoryless source (DMS) with entropy H bits per symbol:

● The minimum average number of bits per symbol needed to represent the
source symbols without loss of information is at least H.

● It is possible to design a coding scheme with an average length as close to H as

desired (but not less than H).
Source coding theorem
Let us assume that the source has an alphabet with k different symbols and that the kth symbol
Sk occurs with the probability Pk, where k = 0, 1…k-1.

Let the binary code word assigned to symbol Sk, by the encoder having length lk, measured in
bits.

the average code word length L of the source encoder as

 Given a discrete memoryless source of entropy H(S)
the average code-word length L for any source encoding is bounded as

L¯≥H(S)."
the efficiency of the source encoder in terms of Entropy H(S ) may be written as

This source coding theorem is called as noiseless coding theorem as it establishes an error-free encoding. It is
also called as Shannon’s first theorem.
Second Source Coding Theorem (Asymptotic Equipartition
Property – AEP)
🔹 Statement
For large sequences of symbols from a DMS, the probability distribution becomes highly
concentrated on a set of typical sequences.
nH
● Number of typical sequences ≈ 2 , where n = sequence length.

● Each typical sequence has probability 2−nH.

Ie In long messages, only typical sequences matter, and they can be coded using about nH
bits.
Real-Life Applications

● File compression: ZIP, RAR, 7z.

● Text compression: PDF, DOCX.

● Image formats: PNG, GIF (lossless), TIFF.

● Data storage: Databases, executable files (must be exact).

sampling
● Process of converting analog signal into discrete signal.
● Sampling is common in all pulse modulation technique
● The signal is sampled at regular intervals such that each sample is
proportional to amplitude of signal at that instant
● Analog signal is sampled every Ts Secs, called sampling interval.
fs=1/TS is called sampling rate or sampling frequency.
● fs=2fm is Min. sampling rate called Nyquist rate.
Sampling ctd...

● Sampled spectrum (ω) is repeating periodically without

overlapping.
● Original spectrum is centered at ω=0 and having
bandwidth of ωm. Spectrum can be recovered by
passing through low pass filter with cut-off ωm.
● For fs<2fm sampled spectrum will overlap and cannot
be recovered back. This is called aliasing.
Sampling ctd...
Sampling methods:

Ideal – An impulse at each sampling instant.

Natural – A pulse of Short width with varying amplitude.

Flat Top – Uses sample and hold, like natural but with single amplitude
value.
Sampling Method
Sampling Method

Instantaneous Sampling or Impulse Sampling:

Sampling function is train of spectrum remains constant impulses
throughout frequency range. It is not practical.
Natural sampling:
The spectrum is weighted by a sinc function.
Amplitude of high frequency components reduces.
Sampling Method

Flat top sampling:

Here top of the samples remains constant.
In the spectrum high frequency components are attenuated due sinc pulse roll
off. This is known as Aperture effect.
If pulse width increases aperture effect is more i.e. more attenuation of high
frequency components.
Sampling Theorem:
Quantization
● The digitization of analog signals involves the rounding off of the values which are
approximately equal to the analog values. The method of sampling chooses a few
points on the analog signal and then these points are joined to round off the value to a
near stabilized value. Such a process is called as Quantization.
● Quantization is representing the sampled values of the amplitude by a finite set of
levels,
Quantizer output
The discrete amplitudes of the quantized output are called as representation levels or reconstruction levels.

The spacing between the two adjacent representation levels is called a quantum or step-size.
Types of Quantization
● 1 Uniform Quantization

2 Non uniform Quantization

❖ Quantization in which the quantization levels are uniformly spaced is termed as a
Uniform Quantization
❖ Quantization in which the quantization levels are unequal and mostly the relation
between them is logarithmic, is termed as a Non-uniform Quantization.
Uniform quantization
[Link] rise

[Link] Thread
Uniform quantization

● The Mid-Rise type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of a raising part
of the stair-case like graph. The quantization levels in this type are even in
number.
● The Mid-tread type is so called because the origin lies in the middle of a tread of
the stair-case like graph. The quantization levels in this type are odd in number.
● Both the mid-rise and mid-tread type of uniform quantizers are symmetric about
the origin.
Quantization error :

● The difference between an input value and its quantized value>

Non uniform quantization reduces the error .

● A Quantizer is a logarithmic function that performs Quantization .

An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) works as a quantizer.

Companding in PCM

● The word Companding is a combination of Compressing and Expanding, which means that it
does both.
● This is a non-linear technique used in PCM which compresses the data at the transmitter and
expands the same data at the receiver.
● The effects of noise and crosstalk are reduced by using this technique.
● Companding is done in order to improve SNR of weak signals.
Compressor characteristic

the compressor provides high gain

to weak signal and low gain to high
input signal.
Expander characteristic

boosted signals is attenuated to

have the originally transmitted
signal.
Need for companding

1. Signals (like voice) have wide dynamic range – meaning some parts are very
weak while others are strong.

2. During quantization (in PCM systems), weak signals suffer more from
quantization noise compared to strong signals.

3. Companding reduces this problem by compressing the dynamic range before

quantization and then expanding it back at the receiver.
Companding
1. Compressor (at transmitter):

○ Non-linear compression is applied to the input signal.

○ Strong signals are compressed (reduced in amplitude), weak signals are

amplified.

○ This makes the overall signal level more uniform before quantization.

2. Quantizer:

○ Quantizes the compressed signal with improved Signal-to-Quantization-Noise

Ratio (SQNR).
3. Expander (at receiver):

○ Applies the inverse non-linear operation.

○ Expands the compressed signal back to its original form.

○ Weak signals are attenuated, strong signals are restored.

Companding techniques

Two standard laws are used worldwide in PCM systems:

● A-law Companding
● µ-law Companding
 A-law Companding

A-law Compressor Characteristics ● the compressor characteristic

is piecewise, made up of a
linear segment for low level
inputs and a logarithmic
segment for high level inputs
A-law Companding
● Uniform quantization is achieved at A = 1, where the characteristic curve is linear and no
compression is done.
● A-law has mid-rise at the origin. Hence, it contains a non-zero value.
● A-law companding is used for PCM telephone systems.
● The practically used value of “A” is 87.6.
● Used in Europe, Asia, Russia, Africa, China.
A-law Companding -Mathematical expression
µ-law Companding
Technique

.μ-law Compressor Characteristics

● The compressor characteristic is piecewise,

made up of a linear segment for low level inputs
and a logarithmic segment for high level inputs
● Higher the value of „μ‟, more is the compression.
●
µ-law Companding Technique

● μ=0, the characteristic is linear (no compression) which corresponds to a

uniform quantization.
● μ-law has mid tread at the origin. Hence it contains zero value.
● The practically used value of “μ” is 255.
● The μ-law companding is used for speech & music signals.
● This μ-law companding technique is used in United States (U.S.), Canada,
Japan, etc.
● Recent digital transmission system uses a 8-bit PCM code with the value of
μ=255.
Pulse modulation
● Pulse modulation is a type of modulation in which the signal is transmitted
in the form of pulses.
● It can be used to transmit analogue information. In pulse modulation,
continuous signals are sampled at regular intervals.
● Pulse modulation can be classified into two major types.
❖ Analog: Indication of sample amplitude is infinitely variable
❖ Digital: Indicates sample amplitude at the nearest predetermined level.
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

● It is the simplest form of Pulse Modulation.

● In this type of modulation, each sample is made proportional to the amplitude
of the signal at the instant of sampling.
● The PAM signal follows the amplitude of the original signal, as the signal traces
out the path of the whole wave.
● Here a signal which is sampled at Nyquist rate can be reconstructed by passing
it through an efficient Low Pass Filter (LPF) with exact cutoff frequency.
● It is very easy to generate and demodulate PAM.
● This technique transmits the data by encoding in the amplitude of a series of
signal pulses.
Advantages of PAM
● Both Modulation and demodulation are simple.
● Easy construction of transmitter and receiver circuits.

Disadvantages of PAM
● Large bandwidth is required for transmission.
● More noise.
● Here the amplitude is varying. Therefore, the power required
will be more.

Applications of PAM
● Mainly used in Ethernet communication.
● Many microcontrollers use this technique in order to generate
control signals.
● It is used in Photo-biology.
● It acts as an electronic driver for LED circuits.
Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)

Here the pulses will have the same amplitude.

However, one of their timing characteristics is made proportional to the
amplitude of the sampled signal. This variable characteristic can be either
frequency, position or width. This way pulse time modulation can be
classified into three types.
Advantages of PTM
● Low power consumption.
● It has an efficiency of about 90 per cent.
● Noise interference is less.
● High power handling capacity.

Disadvantages of PTM
● The circuit is more complex.
● Voltage spikes can be seen.
● The system is expensive as it uses semiconductor devices.
● Switching losses will be more due to high PWM frequency.

Applications of PTM
● Used in encoding purposes in the telecommunication system.
● Used to control brightness in a smart lighting system.
● Helps to prevent overheating in LED’s while maintaining it’s brightness.
● Used in audio and video amplifiers.
Pulse Position Modulation(PPM)

In this type of modulation, both the amplitude and width of the pulse are kept constant.
We vary the position of each pulse with reference to a particular pulse.

Here a single pulse is transmitted with the required number of phase shifts. So we can
say that pulse position modulation is an analogue modulation scheme where the
amplitude and width of the pulse are kept constant, while the position of the pulse with
respect to the position of a reference pulse is varied according to the instantaneous value
of message signal.
Advantages of PPM
● As it has constant amplitude noise interference is less.
● We can easily separate signal from a noisy signal.
● Among all three types, it has the most power efficiency.
● Requires less power when compared to pulse amplitude modulation.

Disadvantages of PPM
● The system is highly complex.
● The system requires more bandwidth.

Applications of PPM
● It is used in the air traffic control system and telecommunication systems.
● Remote controlled cars, planes, trains use pulse code modulations.
● It is used to compress data and hence it is used for storage.
Pulse width modulation(PWM)
Pulse width modulation (PWM)

Pulse width modulation or PWM is a commonly used control technique that

generates analog signals from digital devices such as microcontrollers.

In PWM technique, the signal’s energy is distributed through a series of pulses

rather than a continuously varying (analog) signal.
Applications of Pulse Width Modulation
Due to the high efficiency, low power loss, and the PWM technique’s ability to precisely control
the power, the technique is used in a variety of power applications. Some of the applications
of PWM are as follows:
● The pulse width modulation technique is used in telecommunication for encoding
purposes.
● The PWM helps in voltage regulation and therefore is used to control the speed of
motors.
● The PWM technique controls the fan inside a CPU of the computer, thereby successfully
dissipating the heat.
● PWM is used in Audio/Video Amplifiers.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Pulse Width Modulation
the advantages of the pulse width modulation technique
● PWM technique prevents overheating of LED while maintaining its brightness.
● PWM technique is accurate and has a fast response time.
● PWM technique provides a high input power factor.
● PWM technique helps motors generate maximum torque even when they run at lower speeds.

the disadvantages:
● As the PWM frequency is high, switching losses are considerably high.
● It induces Radio Frequency Interference (RFI).
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

it is a type of digital modulation. That is the signals here are sampled and
sent in pulse form.
A common feature among other techniques is that pulse code modulation
also uses sampling technique.
In this case, instead of sending a pulse train which is capable of
continuously varying parameters, this type of generator produces a series
of numbers or digits. Each digit in it represents the appropriate length of
the sample at a particular instant.
Advantages of PCM
● It is mainly used in long distance communication.
● Transmitter efficiency is more.
● It has higher noise immunity when compared to other methods.

Disadvantages of PCM
● More bandwidth is required when compared to analogue systems.
● In this method encoding, decoding and quantisation of the circuit have to be done. This makes
it more complex.

Applications of PCM
● It is used in the satellite transmission system.
● It is also used in space communication.
● Used in Telephony.
● One of the recent applications is the compact disc.
DELTA MODULATION

● In PCM the signaling rate and transmission channel bandwidth are quite large
since it transmits all the bits which are used to code a sample. To overcome
this problem, Delta modulation is used.
● Delta modulation transmits only one bit per sample. Here, the present sample
value is compared with the previous sample value and this result whether the
amplitude is increased or decreased is transmitted.
DM TRANSMITTER
DM FRECEIVER
Advantages of DM Over DPCM:
● 1-bit quantizer
● Very easy design of the modulator and the demodulator
Disadvantages of DM:
● Slope Over load distortion (when Δ is small)
● Granular noise (when Δ is large)

Applications
● Early digital telephony (low bit rate speech coding).

● Low-complexity systems where bandwidth is limited.

● Basis for more advanced predictive coding techniques

Slope Overload Distortion

This distortion is caused due to large dynamic range of the input signal. Because
When the input signal rising rate is very high, then the staircase signal cannot
approximate it correctly.

So it creates large error between the original input signal X(t) and the staircase
approximated signal. This noise (error) is known as slope overload distortion.
Solution of Slope Overload Distortion
The step size must be increased, when the input signal has high Slope.

Use Adaptive Delta Modulation technique where the step size is increased when
large dynamic variations are present in the signal X(t), to reduce the quantization
errors present in delta modulation.
Granular Noise (Idle Noise)

This noise (error) occurs when the step size is too large in comparison to small
variations in the input signal.

So because of large step size in comparison to the signal having very small
variations or constant; error is introduced between the input signal and the
approximated staircases signal. This error is known as the granular or idle noise.
Solution of the Granular Noise (Idle Noise)
We can overcome the problem of granular noise by keeping the step size small.
use this in adaptive delta modulation technique, where the step size is reduced as
per the small signal value to reduce the difference between the signal and its
approximation (staircase waveform).
Differential Pulse Code Modulation

In normal Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), each sample of the analog signal is
quantized and encoded independently.
This can be inefficient because successive samples of a signal are often
highly correlated (especially in speech, audio, and video).
DPCM exploits this redundancy by encoding the difference between the actual
sample and a predicted value (usually based on previous samples), instead of
encoding the full sample value.
Working of DPCM

● The input analog signal is sampled.

● A predictor estimates the next sample using past samples.
● The difference (error signal) between the actual sample and
predicted sample is calculated.
● This difference is quantized and encoded into binary form.
● At the receiver, the predictor uses the received difference to
reconstruct the signal.
Advantages of DPCM

● Requires fewer bits per sample compared to PCM.

● Reduces redundancy.

● Suitable for voice, audio, and video coding.

Applications of DPCM

● Speech coding (telephone systems).

● Image and video compression.

● Audio transmission.
DPCM transmitter
DPCM receiver
Advantages of DPCM
1. As the difference between x(nTs) and xˆ(nTs) is being encoded and transmitted by the DPCM
technique, a small difference voltage is to be quantized and encoded.
2. This will require less number of quantization levels and hence less number of bits to represent them.
3. Thus signaling rate and bandwidth of a DPCM system will be less than that of PCM.
Redundant information in PCM