Module 3

Syllabus
Analog Communication Block diagram of a communication system. Need for analog
modulation.

Amplitude [Link] and spectrum of AM signal. DSB-SC and SSB

systems. Block diagram of SSB transmitter and receiver.

Frequency and phase modulation. Narrow and wide band FM and their spectra. FM
transmitter and receiver.
Analog communication system
● Analog communication transmits continuous signals.
● Examples: AM radio, FM radio, analog TV.
● Modulation types:

Amplitude Modulation (AM),

Frequency Modulation (FM)

Phase Modulation(PM).
Need for modulation
● Reduces antenna size.
● Allows multiplexing of multiple signals.
● Improves signal strength and range.
● Enhances radiation efficiency.
Amplitude modulation
● Amplitude of carrier varies with message signal
Ie , amplitude of the carrier signal is proportional to (in accordance with) the amplitude of the input
modulating signal. In AM, there is a modulating signal. This is also called an input signal or baseband
signal (Speech for example). This is a low-frequency signal. There is another high-frequency signal
called carrier. The purpose of AM is to translate the low-frequency baseband signal to a higher freq
signal using the carrier.

● Used in AM radio.
AM Radio – A Real-World Example

● AM radio stations transmit voice/music by varying carrier amplitude.

● Frequencies: 531 kHz to 1602 kHz in India.
● Modulated signals are broadcast through antenna.
● Radio receiver extracts message via demodulation.
● Simple and cost-effective communication.
Frequency Range of AM in India

● Medium Wave Band: 531 kHz – 1602 kHz

● Short Wave Band: 3 MHz – 30 MHz
● Channel spacing: 9 kHz
● Regulated by All India Radio (AIR) and MIB
Derivation of Time-Domain Representation of AM
Spectrum of AM
Power Levels in Carrier and Sidebands

● There are three components in the AM wave. Unmodulated carrier, USB(upper

side band) & LSB(Lower side band).
● Total Power of AM is = Power in the Unmodulated carrier + Power in USB +Power in LSB

● If R is the load, then Power in AM

We know that V2c/2R =Pc

Therefore PLSB = m2/4 x Pc

Total power = v2c/2R + m2Vc2/8R + m2Vc2/8R

v2c/2R [ 1 + (m2/4) + (m2/4)] = Pc [ 1 + (m2/4) + (m2/4)]

PTotal = Pc [ 1 + m2/2 ]
Transmission Efficiency

In AM there are three power components Pc, PLSB and PUSB

Out of these Pc is an unmodulated carrier. It is wasteful as it carries no information at all.

The two sidebands carry, all the useful information and therefore useful power is spent only in

Sidebands
Efficiency (η)

A ratio of transmitted power which contains the useful information (PLSB + PUSB) to the
total transmitted power.

Transmission efficiency = (PLSB + PUSB) / (PTotal)

η = Pc [m2/4 + m2/4] / Pc [1+ m2/2] = (m2/2)/(1+m2/2)

η % = m2/2)/(1+m2/2)X 100
Relation between modulation index( ‘m’ or ‘μ’) and
maximum and minimum amplitude of AM envelope
Applications of AM

● AM radio broadcast
● Aviation communication
● Shortwave radios
● Remote location broadcasting
Amplitude Modulation(AM)
Types of AM

● Double sideband with carrier DSBFC

● Double side band with suppressed carrier(DSBSC)
● Single sideband (SSB)
● Vestigial sideband(VSB)
Power relations in AM
● Modulated wave contains more power than the carrier had before modulation
● Total power of modulated wave depends on modulation index since sideband
amplitudes depends on modulation index
● The total power in the modulated wave will be
Double side band with suppressed carrier(DSBSC)

● AM signal consists of three frequencies .Original carrier and sideband

frequencies in normal AM [Link] signal doesnt convey any
[Link] two - third of transmitted power which appears in the
carrier is [Link] real information is conveyed by two sidebands.
● To make AM more efficient the carrier is suppressed since carrier doesnt
convey any useful information
● when a carrier is removed such an AM signal contain only sidebands
.Such a signal is called as double sideband suppressed carrier signal.
● Saved carrier power can be used for strengthening sideband signals
DSB SC modulation Adv and Diadv..
Advantages of DSB-SC modulation

1. It provides 100% modulation efficiency.

2. Due to suppression of carrier, it consumes less power.
3. It provides a larger bandwidth.

Disadvantages of DSB-SC modulation

1. It involves a complex detection process.

2. Using this technique it is sometimes difficult to recover the signal at the receiver.
3. It is an expensive technique when it comes to demodulation of the signal.
Mathematical expression for DSBSC signal
● AM signal s(t)=c(t) m(t)

=Ac Cos (2𝛑fct) Am Cos(2𝛑fmt)

={AcAm/2 } [cos 2𝛑(fc + fm)t+cos 2𝛑(fc - fm)t]

● Bandwidth BW=2f m
Applications of DSB-SC modulation

1. During the transmission of binary data, DSB-SC system is used in phase shift keying methods.
2. In order to transmit 2 channel stereo signals, DSB signals are used in Television and FM broadcasting.
Single sideband Modulation.
● Single sideband modulation (SSB) is an amplitude modulation scheme in which only a single sideband is
transmitted through the channel.
● SSB -SC allows suppression of one sideband and carrier completely.
● Single sideband modulation technique was adopted, as by suppression of one of the two sidebands along
with the carrier causes no loss of information.

Ie .. the two sidebands carry similar information. Thus, for the transmission of information, we need only one
sideband. So, by suppressing one sideband along with the carrier, no any information is lost.

● the bandwidth requirement also gets reduced to half

Mathematical Expression of SSB SC
Spectrum of SSB signal
SSB modulation Adv and Disadv..
Advantages of SSB modulation

1. It allows multiple signals to transmit.

2. SSB technique requires less bandwidth as compared to DSB technique.
3. Less power is consumed.
4. It allows transmission of the high power signal.
5. It provides less interference to noise due to the reduction in bandwidth.

Disadvantages of SSB modulation

1. Implementation of SSB holds complex nature.

2. It is expensive.
3. SSB technique requires a transmitter and receiver to be highly frequency stable. As some slight
change in frequency will deteriorate the quality of the signal.
Applications of SSB modulation

● It is needed in all such applications where power saving and low bandwidth is required.
● The technique is utilized in point to point communication.
● It is also used in land and air mobile communication.
● It also finds its applications in telemetry and radar communication.
Vestigial Sideband modulation
Vestigial Sideband (VSB) modulation is a modulation technique which allows transmission of one sideband in
addition with a part or vestige of the other. It is basically a compromise between DSB-SC and SSB modulation.

SSB modulation does not allow transmission of extremely low-frequency signal accurately. Hence VSB technique
is used.
Bandwidth of VSB

The bandwidth of the Vestigial

sideband signal is given by

BW = fm + fv
Adv and Disadv of VSB
Advantages of Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation

1. It is a highly efficient modulation technique used for wave transmission.

2. It reduces the bandwidth utilization.
3. The filter characteristics do not need to be highly accurate thus making its design simple.
4. It easily transmits low-frequency components and possesses good phase characteristics.

Disadvantages of Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation

1. Its bandwidth requirement is somewhat higher than that of SSB modulation, due to the presence of
vestige.
2. Vestigial sideband modulation leads to a complex demodulation process at the receiver end.
Applications of VSB.
For the transmission of television signals, VSB technique is widely used. As during transmission of TV signals,
there is a need of simultaneous transmission of both audio and video information.

Since a bandwidth of video signal is 4.2 MHz and in DSB-SC modulation that it requires bandwidth twice that of
the message signal. Hence in case of DSB system, the required bandwidth will become 8.4 MHz i.e., twice the
bandwidth of the video [Link] order to limit the bandwidth to 6MHz VSB modulation scheme is used.
Problem.1
Q.A DSBSC transmitter radiates 1kW when the modulation percentage is
60%.How much of carrier power is required if we want to transmit the same msg
by an AM transmitter.

Ans.5.56 kW
Problem 2
[Link] AM transmitter of 1kW power is fully [Link] the power
transmitted if it is transmitted as SSB.

Ans.166.67 W
Problem 3.
Calculate the percentage power saving when the carrier and one of the side
bands are suppressed in an AM wave modulated to a depth of 1)100% 2) 50%

Hint: %power saved =[ (PDSBFC-PSSB) / PDSBFC ] x 100

Ans: 1. 83.33%.

2.94.44 %
Frequency Modulation(FM)
Expression for Frequency Modulated fm(t) = is frequency
Wave
modulated wave
m(t) = Am cos (2π fmt)

c(t) = Ac cos (2πfct) fc → frequency of the carrier

Then frequency modulated wave will be: wave
fm(t) = fc + k Am cos (2π fm t )
m(t) → modulating signal
fm (t) = fc + k m(t)

Where, k → proportionality constant

nt
Frequencies in FM
In FM, variation (or) deviation in frequency, the maximum deviation is Δfmax

Δfmax = │fm(t) – fc│

=│KAm cos(2π fmt) │

The maximum deviation in frequency is K Am

Generally, frequency deviation is defined as the measure of the change in a carrier frequency produced
by the amplitude of the input-modulating signal.
Modulation Index (μ) of FM

The modulation index is the ratio of maximum deviation in frequency of the modulating signal.
Instantaneous voltage of FM wave
Problem 1
Instantaneous voltage expression for FM signal
Instantaneous voltage expression for FM signal
FM output consists of a carrier and infinite number of pairs of sideband each
preceded by J [Link] are Bessel functions

Formula for the Bessel function is

Bessel function values
FM Bandwidth Calculation: Carson’s Rule

Although FM has infinite sidebands, most energy is contained within limited

bandwidth.

Carson’s Rule estimates the practical bandwidth as:

BW=2(Δf+fm)=2fm(mf +1)
Where:

● Δf= maximum frequency deviation

● fm= maximum modulating frequency

Characteristics of FM output
● FM has an infinite number of sidebands as well as [Link] are separated from carrier by
fm ,2fm,3fm…
● J Coefficients represents the amplitude of a particular pair of sidebands .the modulation
index determines how many sideband components have significant amplitude
● Sideband distribution is symmetrical about the carrier frequency
● In FM total transmitted power remains constant
● Bandwidth increase with mf
● Amplitude of the carrier component doesn’t remains constant.
● It is possible for the carrier component of the FM wave to disappear [Link]
happens for certain values of modulation index called eigen values
Classification of FM
Depending on the bandwidth occupied by FM for practical transmission

FM is classified into

● Narrow band FM
● Wideband FM
Narrowband FM

● This frequency modulation has a small bandwidth.

● The modulation index is small.
● Maximum modulating frequency is usually 3kHz and maximum deviation is 5kHz
● Its spectrum consists of carrier, USB, and LSB.
● Narrowband FM is simple, bandwidth-efficient, but less noise-resistant.
● This is used in mobile communications such as police wireless, ambulances,
taxicabs, etc.
Wideband FM

● This frequency modulation has infinite bandwidth.

● The modulation index is large, i.e., higher than 1.
● Maximum permissible deviation is 75kHz and modulating frequencies range from 30Hz
to [Link] modulation index range from 5 to 2500.
● Its spectrum consists of a carrier and infinite number of sidebands, which are located
around it.
● Wideband FM uses more bandwidth but offers high-quality, noise-free communication.
● This is used in entertainment broadcasting applications such as FM radio, TV, etc.
Bandwidth and Spectra of FM
Problem 2

Ans: Power P=7.2 W

fc=95.5MHz

fm=199 Hz

Frequency deviation=995 Hz
PHASE MODULATION(PM)
Phase modulation is a system in which the amplitude of the modulated carrier is
kept constant while the phase and rate of phase are varied by the modulating
signal.

The amount by which the carrier phase is varied from its unmodulated value called
phase [Link] it is proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating voltage.

The rate at which the phase variation changes is equal to the modulating signal
frequency.
Comparison of FM and PM
FM PM

Frequency deviation is made proportional to the Phase deviation is made proportional to the
amplitude of modulating signal amplitude of modulating signal

Modulation index is inversely proportional to the Modulation index is proportional to the

modulating frequency modulating voltage.

When modulating signal frequency is changed When modulating signal frequency is changed
modulation index increase as modulation modulation index remains the same.
frequency reduced. And vice versa.
Comparison of FM and PM
FM AM

❖ Amplitude of the FM wave is a constant and it is ● Amplitude of the AM wave varying with
independent of modulation depth. mduatong [Link] depth determined
❖ All the transmitted power in FM is useful. by the modulating and carrier voltage
❖ More immune to noise than AM. ● Most of the transmitted power in the
❖ Noise can be reduced by increasing the transmitted carrier ,which contains no useful
deviation information.
❖ Less adjacent channel interference by providing ● It is noise affected
guard band between FM stations ● It is not possible to exceed 100% modulation
❖ FM operates in VHF and UHF frequency range without causing distortion.
❖ Space wave is used for propagation ● AM operates in MF and HF frequency range
❖ It is possible to operate several independent
● Transmitter and receiver circuitry is simple and
transmitters on the same frequency with less
easy to design
interference
❖ Requires wider bandwidth ● Wide range in area of reception.
❖ Reception is limited to Line of sight ● Bandwidth is limited to 2fm
❖ Transmitting and receiving circuitry is complex
Applications of Phase Modulation
1. Digital Communication (PSK - Phase Shift Keying)
●
Most significant application of PM

Digital data is transmitted by varying the phase of the [Link] are

a. BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying)

b. QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying)

c. 8-PSK, 16-PSK, etc.

● Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

● 4G LTE

● Satellite communication

● Bluetooth

● RFID
2. Sound Synthesis (Audio Effects)
● PM is used in music synthesizers to generate complex tones.

● Especially used in Yamaha DX7 synthesizer (1980s).

● It enables creation of natural-sounding instruments like bells, brass,

and strings.
3. Radar Systems
● Phase modulation is used to improve target resolution and range
accuracy.

● Techniques like phase-coded pulse compression increase radar's ability to

detect small or fast-moving targets.
Telemetry and Satellite Communication
● In telemetry systems, PM is used due to its noise immunity and
efficient use of bandwidth.

● Used in space communication for robust data transmission.

Optical Communication Systems
● Phase modulation is used to encode data onto light waves in coherent
optical communication.

● Techniques like Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) and

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) enhance data rate and noise
immunity.
Software Defined Radio (SDR) and Modems
● PM is implemented in modems and SDRs for flexible modulation
schemes.

● Enables switching between AM, FM, and PM based on channel

conditions.
Military and Secure Communications
● PM provides low probability of intercept (LPI).

● Often used with spread spectrum techniques to enhance security and resist
jamming.
Why use PM?

● PM can be easily derived from FM and vice versa.

● PM systems may offer simpler transmitter or receiver designs under certain

conditions.

● In digital systems, PSK is spectrally efficient and robust.

SSB SC modulators

● Frequency discrimination method

● Phase discrimination method
SSB SC modulator-frquencyy discrimination method
Frequency discrimination method
Inthis method, first generate DSBSC wave with the help of the product
modulator. Then, apply this DSBSC wave as an input of band pass filter. This
band pass filter produces an output, which is SSBSC wave.

Select the frequency range of band pass filter as the spectrum of the desired
SSBSC wave. This means the band pass filter can be tuned to either upper
sideband or lower sideband frequencies to get the respective SSBSC wave having
upper sideband or lower sideband.
Phase discrimination method
It consists of two product modulators, two 900 phase shifters, one local oscillator
and one summer block. The product modulator produces an output, which is the
product of two inputs. The 900 phase shifter produces an output, which has a phase
lag of -900 with respect to the input.
The local oscillator is used to generate the carrier signal. Summer block
produces an output, which is either the sum of two inputs or the difference of
two inputs based on the polarity of inputs
Block Diagram of Radio communication
Generation of AM
Square Law Modulator
Generation of AM wave
AM transmitter
AM transmitter
● The carrier source is a crystal controlled oscillator at the carrier frequency or a
submultiple of [Link] is followed by a tuned buffer amplifierand a tuned driver .if
necessary frequency multiplication is provided in one or more of these stages .
● The modulator circuit is generally a class C power amplifier that is collector
modulated.
● The audio signal is amplified by a chain of low level audio amplifier and power
[Link] this amplifier controlling the power being delivered to RF amplifier it
must have power driving capability that is one half the maximum power the collector
supply must deliver to the RF amplifier under 100% modulation index. A transformer
coupled class B push pull amplifier is used for this purpose.
AM transmitter ctd..
● if any stage except the output stage is modulated(low level modulation ),
each following stage must handle a sideband power as well as the carrier. All
these subsequent amplifiers must have sufficient bandwidth for the sideband
frequencies. all these stages must be capable of handling amplitude
variations caused by the modulation. Such stages must be class A and
consequently are less efficient than class C amplifiers
● low modulating power requirements in low level modulation.
● In higher the level of modulation, the larger the audio power required to
produce modulation
● In high level modulation , collector modulated class C amplifier tends to have
better efficiency, lower distortion and much better power-handling capabilities
AM transmitter ctd..
Sometimes modulation function is done in one of the low level stages .This allows
low power modulation and audio [Link] it requires high power RF power
amplifiers .

Class C amplifiers cannot be used to amplify AM carrier since its transfer function
is not [Link] use of class C amplifier results in distortion of the AM [Link]
overcome the problem linear amplifier such a Class B push -pull amplifier is used
AM transmitter ctd..
High level AM modulation used in Broadcast AM transmissions

Low level AM modulation used in low power and miscellaneous application ,in test
instruments and AM generators.
SSB transmitter
SSB system requires excellent frequency stability on the part of both transmitter
and receiver, because, any frequency shift, anywhere along the chain of events
through which the information must pass, will cause an equal frequency shift to the
received signal.

To ensure frequency stability ,two types of SSB transmitters are used

Pilot carrier transmitter

ISB transmitter.
SSB pilot carrier transmitter
SSB pilot carrier transmitter
It is similar to the conventional SSB transmitter, with the one difference that an
attenuated carrier signal is added to the transmission after the unwanted sideband
has been removed.

The carrier is normally re-inserted at a level of I 5 or 26 dB below the value it

would have had if it had not been suppressed in the first place, and it provides a
reference signal to help demodulation in the receiver.

The receiver can then use an automatic frequency control (AFC) circuit to control
the frequency of a carrier signal generator inside the receiver with the help of a
pilot carrier.
ISB transmitter
ISB transmission
ISB essentially consists of two SSB channels added to form two sidebands around
the reduced carrier. Each sideband is quite independent of the other. It can
simultaneously convey a totally different transmission, to the extent that the upper
sideband could be used for telephony while the lower sideband carries telegraphy
ISB transmission
● Each 6-kHz channel is fed to its own balanced modulator, each balanced modulator also receiving
the output of the 100-kHz crystal oscillator. The carrier is suppressed (by 45 dB or more) in the
balanced modulator .
● the main function of the filter still being the suppression of the unwanted sideband, as in all other
SSB systems. one filter suppresses the lower sideband, the other supresses the upper sideband.
Both outputs are then combined in the adder with the -26 dB carrier, so that a low-frequency ISB
signal exists at this pointwith a pilot carrier also present.
● Through mixing with the output of another crystal oscillator, the frequency is then raised to the
standard value of 3.1 MHz
● The use of balanced mixers, to permit easier removal of unwanted frequencies by the output filter.
● The signal enters the main transmitter. Its frequency is raised yet again, through mixing with the
output of another crystal oscillator, or frequency synthesizer. This is done because the frequency
range for such transmission line in the HF band is, from 3 to 30 MHz. The resulting RF ISB signal is
then amplified by linear amplifiers, until it reaches the ultimate level. at which point it is fed to a fairly
directional antenna for transmission. The typical power level at this point is generally between IO and
60 kW peak
DSB -SC AM
Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) is an amplitude modulation method
where both upper and lower sidebands are transmitted, but the carrier is suppressed (not
transmitted at full strength).

● The transmitted signal is: s(t)=m(t)⋅cos(ωct)

Where: m(t) = baseband message signal

ωc = carrier angular frequency

● Because the carrier is suppressed, the transmitted power efficiency is higher — but
demodulation becomes trickier.
Demodulation of DSB-SC Signal

Method: Synchronous Detection (Coherent Demodulation)

Principle

● Multiply the received DSB-SC signal with a locally generated carrier that is synchronized in frequency and phase with the
original transmitted carrier.

● Then apply a low-pass filter (LPF) to recover the original message m(t)
Role of a Pilot Carrier

● A pilot carrier is a small amount of the original carrier transmitted along with the DSB-SC
signal.

● This allows the receiver to lock onto the carrier using a Phase Locked Loop (PLL) and
generate a synchronized carrier locally.

● This technique turns DSB-SC into DSB with reduced carrier — slightly lower efficiency, but
much easier demodulation.
FM transmitter
FM transmitter
The crystal oscillator generates the stable carrier signal.
The modulating signal and the carrier signal are applied to the phase modulator operating in the
low power level to generate a narrowband FM wave.
The narrowband FM wave is then passed through several stages of frequency multipliers to
increase the frequency deviation and also carrier signal frequency to the required level. The
several stages of frequency multiplication helps in choosing a suitable combination for achieving
the required level of multiplication factors needed for deviation and carrier signal frequency.
The output of the frequency multipliers stage will be a wideband FM, but at the low power level.
The WBFM is then passed through one or more stages of power amplifiers to add required
power levels.
The WBFM with high power is then finally transmitted via the antenna towards the receiver
Super heterodyne receiver
Superheterodyne AM receiver
The RF stage is normally a wide band RF amplifier tunable from approximately
540 kHz to 1650 kHz (standard commercial AM band. It is mechanically tied to the
local oscillator to ensure precise tuning characteristics

The local oscillator is a variable oscillator capable of generating a signal from

0.995 MHz to 2.105 MHz. The incoming signal from the transmitter is selected and
amplified by the RF stage. It is then combined (mixed) with a predetermined local
oscillator signal in the mixer stage. (During this stage, a class C [Link]
processes the signals, producing the sum, difference, and originals.)
Superheterodyne AM receiver
The signal from the mixer is then supplied to the IF (intermediate-frequency)
amplifier. This amplifier is a very-narrow-bandwidth class A device capable of
selecting a frequency of 455 kHz ± 3 kHz and rejecting all others.

The next process is in the detector stage, which eliminates one of the sidebands
still present and separates the RF from the audio components of the other
sideband. The RF is filtered to ground, and audio is fed to the audio stages for
amplification and then to the speakers, etc.
RF stage and its function
The advantages of having an RF amplifier at the input stage of AM receiver
l. Greater gain, i.e., better sensitivity
2. Improved image-frequency rejection
3. Improved signal-to-noise ratio
4. Improved rejection of adjacent unwanted signals, i.e., better selectivity
5.· Better coupling of the receiver to the antenna (important at VHF and above)
6. Prevention of spurious frequencies from entering the mixer and heterodyning there to produce
ari interfering frequency equal to the IF from the desired signal
7. Prevention of reradiation of the local oscillator through the antenna of the receiver
Frequencies Used

l. Standard broadcast AM receivers [tuning to 540 to 1650 kHz, perhaps 6 to 18 MHz, and possibly even
the European long-wave band (150 to 350 kHz)] use an IF within the 438- to 465-kHz range, with 455 kHz
by far the most popular frequency.

2. AM, SSB and other receivers employed for shortwave or VHF reception have a first IF often in the
range from about 1.6 to 2.3 MHz, or else above 30 MHz. (Such receivers have two or more different
intermediate frequencies.)

3. FM receivers using the standard 88· to 108-MHz band have an 1F which is almost always 10.7 MHz.

4. Television receivers in the VHF band (54 to 223 MHz) and in the UHF band (470 to 940 MHz) use an IF
between 26 and 46 MHz, with approximately 36 and 46 MHz the two most popular values

S. Microwave and radar receiver:-operating on frequencies in the 1- to 10-GHz range, use intermediate
frequencies depending on the application. with 30, 60 and 70 MHz among the most popular.
FM RECEIVER
FM reciever
RF amplifier provides better impedance matching between antenna and [Link]
ensures maximum S/N
Mixer .Oscillators generates frequency in the VHF [Link] oscillators such as
colpitts oscillatory circuit is used.
IF frequency and IF amplifiers:-the intermediate frequency and the bandwidth required
are far higher than in AM broadcast receivers. Typical figures for receivers operating in
the 88- to 108-MHz band are an IF of I 0. 7 MHz and a bandwidth of 200 kHz. As a
consequence of the large bandwidth, gain per stage may be low. Two IF amplifier stages
are often provided, in which case the shrinkage of bandwidth as stages are cascaded
must be taken into account..
FM receiver
Amplitude limiting
● A demodulator must be preceded by an amplitude limiter since a small
change in amplitude may cause distortion in the demodulated output.
● Amplitude limiter is a form of clipping circuit that output remains constant
despite changes in amplitude of the signal
Automatic gain control
● This is to ensure that the signal fed to the limiter is within its limiting range,
regardless of the input signal strength, and also to prevent overloading of the
last IF amplifier.
FM receiver
FM demodulator
● The function of a frequency-to-amplitude changer, or FM demodulator, is to
change the frequency deviation of the incoming carrier into an AF amplitude
variation (identical to the one that originally caused the frequency variation).
This conversion should be done efficiently and linearly.
● The detection circuit should (if at all possible) be insensitive to amplitude
changes and should not be too critical in its adjustment and operation.
De-emphasis network
FM receiver
De emphasis
The process that is used at the receiver end to nullify or compensate the artificial boosting given to the
higher modulating frequencies in the process of pre-emphasis is called De-emphasis.

The demodulated distortion free AF signal given to loudspeaker generating audio output.
Pilot carrier SSB receiver
ISB receiver with frequency synthesizer