Overview of Metabolic Reactions

Metabolic processes are constantly taking place in the body.

Metabolism is the sum of all of the chemical reactions that are involved in
catabolism and anabolism.
The reactions governing the breakdown of food to obtain energy are called
catabolic reactions.
Conversely, anabolic reactions use the energy produced by catabolic
reactions to synthesize larger molecules from smaller ones, such as when
the body forms proteins by stringing together amino acids. Both sets of
reactions are critical to maintaining life.
Because catabolic reactions produce energy and anabolic reactions use
energy, ideally, energy usage would balance the energy produced.
If the net energy change is positive (catabolic reactions release more energy
than the anabolic reactions use), then the body stores the excess energy by
building fat molecules for long-term storage.
On the other hand, if the net energy change is negative (catabolic reactions
release less energy than anabolic reactions use), the body uses stored
energy to compensate for the deficiency of energy released by catabolism.

Catabolic Reactions
Catabolic reactions break down large organic molecules into smaller
molecules, releasing the energy contained in the chemical bonds.
These energy releases (conversions) are not 100 percent efficient. The
amount of energy released is less than the total amount contained in the
molecule.
Approximately 40 percent of energy yielded from catabolic reactions is
directly transferred to the high-energy molecule adenosine triphosphate

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(ATP). ATP, the energy currency of cells, can be used immediately to
power molecular machines that support cell, tissue, and organ function.
This includes building new tissue and repairing damaged tissue.
ATP can also be stored to fulfill future energy demands. The remaining 60
percent of the energy released from catabolic reactions is given off as heat,
which tissues and body fluids absorb.
Structurally, ATP molecules consist of an adenine, a ribose, and three
phosphate groups.
The chemical bond between the second and third phosphate groups, termed
a high-energy bond, represents the greatest source of energy in a cell.
It is the first bond that catabolic enzymes break when cells require energy
to do work. The products of this reaction are a molecule of adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) and a lone phosphate group (Pi).
ATP, ADP, and Pi are constantly being cycled through reactions that build
ATP and store energy, and reactions that break down ATP and release
energy.

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The energy from ATP drives all bodily functions, such as contracting
muscles, maintaining the electrical potential of nerve cells, and absorbing
food in the gastrointestinal tract.
The metabolic reactions that produce ATP come from various sources.

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Sources of ATP. During catabolic reactions, proteins are broken down into amino acids, lipids are
broken down into fatty acids, and polysaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides. These
building blocks are then used for the synthesis of molecules in anabolic reactions.

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Of the four major macromolecular groups (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and nucleic acids) that are processed by digestion, carbohydrates are
considered the most common source of energy to fuel the body.
They take the form of either complex carbohydrates, polysaccharides like
starch and glycogen, or simple sugars (monosaccharides) like glucose and
fructose. Sugar catabolism breaks polysaccharides down into their
individual monosaccharides.
Among the monosaccharides, glucose is the most common fuel for ATP
production in cells, and as such, there are a number of endocrine control
mechanisms to regulate glucose concentration in the bloodstream.
Excess glucose is either stored as an energy reserve in the liver and skeletal
muscles as the complex polymer glycogen, or it is converted into fat
(triglyceride) in adipose cells (adipocytes).
Among the lipids (fats), triglycerides are most often used for energy via a
metabolic process called β-oxidation.
About one-half of excess fat is stored in adipocytes that accumulate in the
subcutaneous tissue under the skin, whereas the rest is stored in adipocytes
in other tissues and organs.
Proteins, which are polymers, can be broken down into their monomers,
individual amino acids.
Amino acids can be used as building blocks of new proteins or broken
down further for the production of ATP.
When one is chronically starving, this use of amino acids for energy
production can lead to a wasting away of the body, as more and more
proteins are broken down.
Nucleic acids are present in most of the foods you eat. During digestion,
nucleic acids including DNA and various RNAs are broken down into their
constituent nucleotides.

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These nucleotides are readily absorbed and transported throughout the
body to be used by individual cells during nucleic acid metabolism.

Anabolic Reactions
In contrast to catabolic reactions, anabolic reactions involve the joining
of smaller molecules into larger ones. Anabolic reactions combine
monosaccharides to form polysaccharides, fatty acids to form triglycerides,
amino acids to form proteins, and nucleotides to form nucleic acids.
These processes require energy in the form of ATP molecules generated
by catabolic reactions.
Anabolic reactions, also called biosynthesis reactions, create new
molecules that form new cells and tissues, and revitalize organs.

Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism

Catabolic and anabolic hormones in the body help regulate metabolic
processes.
Catabolic hormones stimulate the breakdown of molecules and the
production of energy.
These include cortisol, glucagon, adrenaline/epinephrine, and cytokines.
All of these hormones are mobilized at specific times to meet the needs of
the body.
Anabolic hormones are required for the synthesis of molecules and include
growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor, insulin, testosterone, and
estrogen.

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Disorders of the Metabolic Processes:
Cushing Syndrome and Addison’s Disease.
As might be expected for a fundamental physiological process like
metabolism, errors or malfunctions in metabolic processing lead to a
pathophysiology or—if uncorrected—a disease state.
Metabolic diseases are most commonly the result of malfunctioning
proteins or enzymes that are critical to one or more metabolic pathways.
Protein or enzyme malfunction can be the consequence of a genetic
alteration or mutation.
However, normally functioning proteins and enzymes can also have
deleterious effects if their availability is not appropriately matched with
metabolic need.
For example, excessive production of the hormone cortisol gives rise to
Cushing syndrome. Clinically, Cushing syndrome is characterized by rapid
weight gain, especially in the trunk and face region, depression, and
anxiety.
It is worth mentioning that tumors of the pituitary that produce
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which subsequently stimulates the
adrenal cortex to release excessive cortisol, produce similar effects.
This indirect mechanism of cortisol overproduction is referred to as
Cushing disease.

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