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MODULE 2

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Symmetrical Fault Analysis

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Course Objectives:
1. To explain the necessity and conduction of short circuit analysis.
2. To explain analysis of three phase symmetrical faults on synchronous machine and simple power systems.
3. To discuss selection of circuit breaker.

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2.1 INTRODUCTION

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Transmission lines stretch over large distances and are subject to faults involving one or more phases and ground. Such
faults cause momentary power outages but, more important, if a protective action is not taken, can cause permanent

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damage to transmission equipment such as the transmission line itself and/or the transformer.

2.1.1 FAULTS

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A fault in a circuit is any failure that interferes with the normal flow of current to the load. In most faults, a short circuit
path forms between two or more phases, or between one or more phases and the neutral (ground). Since the impedance of
a new path is usually low, an excessive current may flow.
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High-voltage transmission lines have strings of insulators supporting each phase. The insulators must be large enough to
prevent flashover–a condition when the voltage difference between the line and the ground is large enough to ionize the
air around insulators and thus provide a current path between a phase and a tower.

2.1.2 CAUSES OF FAULTS

• Tree Branches near the right-of-way on transmission lines and shorting them to ground.

• Lightning that represents a current source of thousands of amperes. This current flowing through the tower footing
impedance can raise the tower potential above the local ground to such a level that without surge arresters, the
insulator strings may flash over.

The reason to analyze faults are:

 To set the relays so that can detect it.
 To make sure that the circuit breakers ratings are such that they are capable of interrupting the fault
current

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2.2 Transient on a Transmission Line

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There are two main types of faults:

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o Symmetric faults: System remains balanced; these faults are relatively rare, but are the easiest to analyze so we’ll
consider them first.

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o Unsymmetric faults: System is no longer balanced; very common, but more difficult to analyze.

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The most common types of faults on a three phase system are:
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 Single line-to-ground (SLG)-70%
 Line-to-line faults (LL)-15%
 Double line-to-ground (DLG) faults -10%
 Balanced three phase faults.-5%

If flashover occurs on a single phase of the line, an arc will be produced. Such faults are called single line-to-ground faults. Since
the short-circuit path has a low impedance, very high currents flow through the faulted line into the ground and back into the power
system. Faults involving ionized current paths are also called transient faults. They usually clear if power is removed from the line
for a short time and then restored.

Single line-to-ground faults can also occur if one phase of the line breaks comes into contact with the ground or if insulators break.
This fault is called a permanent fault since it will remain after a quick power removing. Approximately 75% of all faults in power
systems are either transient or permanent single line-to-ground faults

Table 2.1 Types of faults

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Type of fault Abbreviation Type

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Single line to ground SLG Unsymmetrical

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Line to line LL Unsymmetrical

Double line to ground LLG Unsymmetrical

Symmetrical three phase 3P Symmetrical

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2.2.1 CAUSES OF FAULTS

• Tree Branches near the right-of-way on transmission lines and shorting them to ground.

• Lightning that represents a current source of thousands of amperes. This current flowing through the tower footing impedance
can raise the tower potential above the local ground to such a level that without surge arresters, the insulator strings may flash
over.

• The reason to analyze faults are

 To set the relays so that can detect it.

 To make sure that the circuit breakers ratings are such that they are capable of interrupting the fault currents.

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2.2.2 LIGHTNING STRIKE EVENT SEQUENCE

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1. Lighting hits lines, setting up an ionized path to the ground

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• Millions lightning strikes per year hits every year!

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• A single typical stroke might have 25,000 amps, with a rise time of 10 s, dissipated in 200 s.

•
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Multiple strokes can occur in a single flash, causing the lightning to appear to flicker, with the total event lasting up
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to a second.

2. Conduction path is maintained by ionized air after lightning stroke energy has dissipated, resulting in high fault currents (often
> 25,000 amps)

3. Within one to two cycles (16 ms) relays at both ends of line detect high currents, signaling circuit breakers to open the line:
• Nearby locations see decreased voltages

4. Circuit breakers open to de-energize line in a one to two cycles:

• Breaking tens of thousands of amps of fault current is no small feat.
• With line removed voltages usually return to near normal

5. Circuit breakers may reclose after several seconds, trying to restore faulted line to service.

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2.2.3 FAULT ANALYSIS

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• Fault currents cause equipment damage due to both thermal and mechanical processes.

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• The main goal of fault analysis is to determine the magnitudes of the currents present during the fault:

• We need to determine the maximum current to ensure devices can survive the fault.

•
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We need to determine the maximum current the circuit breakers (CBs) need to interrupt to correctly size the CBs.
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To understand fault analysis we need to review the behavior of an RL circuit with a switch: transient response and
steady state: Circuit Analysis .
2.2.4 NETWORK FAULT ANALYSIS SIMPLIFICATIONS

To simplify the analysis of fault currents in networks we will make several simplifications:

1. Transmission lines are represented by their series reactance

2. Transformers are represented by their leakage reactances.
3. Synchronous machines are modelled as a constant voltage behind direct-axis sub-transient reactance.
4. Induction motors are ignored or treated as synchronous machines
5. Other (non-spinning) loads are ignored.

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2.3 Short Circuit of a Synchronous Machine (On No Load), Short Circuit of a Loaded Synchronous

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Machine

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Sub-transient: first cycle or so after the fault – AC current is very large and falls rapidly;

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Transient: current falls at a slower rate;
Steady-state: current gets back to normal

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Fig 2.1 Symmetrical AC components of transients

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Fig 2.2: Symmetrical short circuit current

• The AC current flowing in the generator during the sub-transient period is called the sub-transient current and is denoted by
I”. This current is caused by the damper windings of synchronous machines. The time constant of the sub-transient current is
denoted by T” and it can be determined from the slope. This current may be 10 times the steady-state fault current.

• The AC current flowing in the generator during the transient period is called the transient current and is denoted by I’. It is
caused by a transient DC component of current induced in the field circuit of a synchronous generator at the time of fault.
This transient field current increases the internal generated voltage of a machine and, therefore, an increased fault current.

• The time constant of a field circuit T’ is much larger than the time constant of the damper winding, therefore, the transient
period lasts longer than the sub-transient. This current is often as much as 5 times the steady-state fault current.

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After the transient period, the fault current reaches a steady-state condition. The steady-state rms current is denoted by Iss and is

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approximated by the fundamental frequency component of the internal generated voltage normalized by the synchronous
reactance:

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Iss= EA/Xs

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The rms magnitude of the AC fault current in a synchronous generator varies over time as

I(t)= (I’’- I’)e –t/T’’ + (I’-Iss)e-t/T’’ +Iss

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The sub-transient reactance is the ratio of the fundamental component of the internal generated voltage to the sub-transient
component of current at the beginning of the fault.
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X’’= EA/I’’

Similarly, the transient reactance is the ratio of the fundamental component of the internal generated voltage to the transient
component of current at the beginning of the fault. This value of current is found by extrapolating the transient region back to time
zero.
X’=EA/I’
I’’=EA/X’’
I’=EA/X’

Course Outcome
At the end of the module, students will be able to:
ÿAnalyze the selection of circuit breaker through short circuit analysis for synchronous machines

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