Data Collection

Data collection in biomedical engineering refers to the process of gathering information from
biological systems, often using specialized sensors and devices, to analyze physiological
parameters, diagnose diseases, or develop new medical technologies; this data can include
clinical information like patient demographics, medical imaging data like X-rays, genomic
data, and sensor readings from implantable devices, all requiring careful collection and
management to ensure accuracy and reliability in research and clinical applications.

Complex interactions between the mechanical, electrical, and biological domains are
common in biomedical systems, necessitating the use of specialised equipment to provide
high-fidelity data. For instance, oscilloscopes are essential for viewing and evaluating
biomedical signal waveforms such as ECGs and EMGs, whereas micrometres are essential
for precisely measuring the size of implants. Audiometers are crucial for evaluating auditory
function and calibrating hearing aids, while frequency meters help monitor the operation of
equipment like pacemakers to make sure they produce signals within predetermined ranges.

These tools are essential for testing, validation, and quality control in addition to the design
stage. Characterising material qualities, assessing device performance, and validating against
clinical standards are all made possible by precise measurements. Additionally, incorporating
these tools into biomedical workflows improves device dependability, reduces mistakes, and
facilitates regulatory compliance.

Data collection methods:

• Invasive techniques: Implantable sensors, catheters, tissue biopsies
• Non-invasive techniques: Wearable devices, surface electrodes, imaging
modalities
• Patient-reported outcomes: Questionnaires, surveys

A key component of biomedical device design is data collecting, which serves as the basis for
precise diagnosis, efficient therapy, and dependable device operation. Measurement devices
are crucial tools in biomedical engineering because they allow for the collection of accurate
and reproducible data from biological systems. With the use of these tools, engineers may
measure physiological, chemical, and physical factors that are essential to the development
and improvement of medical systems and equipment.

key data types collected :

1 Clinical Data:
➢ Patient demographics (age, gender, medical history)
➢ Vital signs (heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate)
➢ Laboratory test results (blood chemistry, urinalysis)
➢ Medication history
2 Medical Imaging Data:
➢ X-rays
 ➢ Computed Tomography (CT) scans
➢ Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans
➢ Ultrasound images
➢ Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans
3 Genomic and Molecular Data:
➢ DNA sequencing data
➢ RNA sequencing data
➢ Protein expression data
➢ MicroRNA analysis
4 Sensor Data from Wearable Devices:
➢ Accelerometer data (movement patterns)
➢ Gyroscope data (orientation)
➢ Heart rate data
➢ Skin temperature data
5 Physiological Signals:
➢ Electrocardiogram (ECG)
➢ Electroencephalogram (EEG)
➢ Electromyogram (EMG)
➢ Blood pressure waveforms
6 Environmental Data:
➢ Air quality (pollutants, temperature, humidity)
➢ Noise levels
➢ Light exposure
7 Behavioral Data:
➢ Activity levels
➢ Sleep patterns
➢ Dietary intake
➢ Quality of life measures

Measurement system
A measurement system is used to quantify the physical variables. Generalized measurement
system is a system that is comprised of the typical elements of a measurement system. It
helps to understand how a measurement system works.
A biomedical measurement system is a collection of instruments and techniques used to
quantify physiological parameters within a living organism
Any medical instrumentation system would be made up of the following key components:
Measurand
Transducer or sensor
Signal Conditioner
Display system

Measurand
This is the physical quantity or condition that the instrumentation system measures. The
source of the Measurand is the human body which generates a variety of signals. The
Measurand for example can be on the surface of the body (electrocardiogram potential) or
may be blood pressure in the chambers of the heart.
Transducer/Sensor
A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another. A transducer converts a
physical signal into an electrical output. The primary function of the transducer is to provide
a usable output in a response to the Measurand. Sometimes another term, ‘’sensor’’ maybe
used in medical instrumentation systems. When used here it does the same function of
converting the physical Measurand to an electrical signal.
Signal Conditioner
Signal conditioning circuits convert the output from the transducer into a digital value sent to
the display unit. Signal conditioning comprises amplification, filtering, and analog-to-digital
and digital-to-analog conversions. Signal conditioning usually include functions such as
amplifications, filtering, analog-to-digital conversions, digital-to-analog conversions etc. This
component of the medical instrumentation system helps in increasing the sensitivity of
instruments by amplification of the original signal (which is usually extremely small) or its
transduced form.
Display System
This provides a visible representation of the quantity as a displacement on a scale or on the
chart of a recorder the screen of CRT or in a numerical form. Besides the display unit, the
processed signal after signal conditioning maybe passed to:

Why Accurate Measurements are Critical:

Patient Safety
Biomedical devices must function within specific tolerances to ensure they do not harm
patients. For instance, an inaccurate reading from a blood pressure monitor could lead to
incorrect treatment decisions, potentially endangering the patient.
Device Reliability
Consistent and precise measurements ensure that the device performs as intended across
various conditions and over time. For example, a glucometer must provide accurate blood
glucose readings regardless of environmental factors like temperature or humidity.
Regulatory Compliance
Medical devices must adhere to stringent standards and regulations set by organizations such
as the FDA, ISO, or CE. Accurate measurements are necessary to demonstrate compliance
during testing and certification processes.
Data Integrity for Diagnosis
Measurements collected from biomedical devices form the basis for medical diagnoses. An
accurate ECG, for instance, can help detect cardiac abnormalities early, preventing severe
health issues.
Research and Development
In the design phase, precise measurements are essential for validating prototypes, comparing
alternatives, and optimizing device performance. Inaccuracies during R&D can propagate to
final products, resulting in costly recalls or redesigns.
Calibration and Interoperability
Biomedical devices often need to integrate with other systems or instruments. Accurate
measurement ensures proper calibration and seamless data exchange, crucial in hospital
settings where devices like infusion pumps or ventilators work in tandem.
Physiological Variability
Human physiology exhibits significant variability across individuals and conditions.
Measurement instruments must capture this variability accurately to provide meaningful
insights tailored to each patient.
Minimizing Errors and Artifacts
Precise measurement instruments help reduce noise, errors, and artifacts, leading to cleaner
signals and more reliable interpretations. This is especially critical in sensitive measurements,
such as detecting minute electrical signals in EEGs or EMGs.

Types of Measurement Instruments

Mechanical Instruments:
Example: Micrometers, calipers.
 Use: Measure dimensions and tolerances of biomedical
components like implants and sensors.
Electrical Instruments:
Example: Oscilloscopes.
Use: Visualize electrical signals (e.g., ECG, EEG) and test
circuit behavior.
Frequency Instruments:
Example: Frequency meters.
Use: Ensure the frequency of biomedical devices (e.g.,
pacemakers) is within desired limits.
Acoustic Instruments:
Example: Audiometers.
Use: Assess hearing levels and calibrate hearing aids.
Micrometer
A Micrometer or screw gauge is an instrument used for making precise linear measurements
of dimensions such as diameter, thickness, and lengths of solid bodies. It is made of a C-
shaped frame with a movable jaw operated by an integral screw. The fineness of the
measurement depends on the lead of the screw while the accuracy of the measurement
depends on the accuracy of the screw-nut combination.
A micrometer is a measurement tool which is often called a micron. It is an excellent tool for
accurate length measurements. From science and engineering to manufacturing industries - it
has several applications everywhere. It usually consists of a finely threaded spindle, which
can move a vernier or calibrated scale along the length of the object being measured. This
instrument comes in different types, which include outside micrometers to measure an
object’s external dimensions, inside micrometers for internal measurements, and depth
micrometers to measure the depth of an object or step heights.

Micrometers are widely used in metrology, manufacturing, and quality control. Their high
precision ability makes them a vital tool for measuring the thickness of a material, calibrating
parts of a machine and ensuring the accurate mechanism of components. In recent days,
digital micrometers have become quite popular. With their digital measurements, they are
amazingly user-friendly and considered even more accurate.

Parts and Their Main Function:

C-Frame
It’s a c shaped frame as identified in the picture, is a rigid part that has both holding points for
a job or object to be measured. Its size depends on micrometer measuring range so size of c
frame increases as range expands to bigger.
Its main function is to provide basic structure of a micrometer in which stationary anvil
located at one end and movable spindle slides inward or outward trough other end of c frame.
Zero adjust screw
It’s a screw located back end of anvil shown in figure. As name shows it is to correct or adjust
the zero error of micrometer if there is some error found before the measurement during test.
Anvil
it is a small stationary cylindrical part of micrometer located in far end of c-frame and acts as
one holding point for measuring objects. So we can say it’s a one of rigid measuring and
holding point of micrometer.
Spindle
A cylindrical long part which is mounted through all other parts sleeve, lock nut and thimble.
It is moveable part and has a connection with ratchet as we rotate the ratchet clockwise or
counter clockwise the spindle slides out or inward to adjust it with compare to measuring
object size.
Anvil Face and Spindle Face
Faces of both anvil and spindle which are opposite to each other are the measuring points of
micrometer and hold the measuring object collectively.
Lock nut:
As we know the mechanism of micrometer based on precision ground threads of spindle so
the lock nut works as stationary nut for this mechanism, so rotation of this mechanism into
lock nut controls the spindle movement.
Sleeve:
It’s a barrel type cylindrical part which mounted on spindle and is main scale of micrometer
because main scale is engraved on the sleeve .Thimble rotates around that sleeve and spindle.
Its main function is indication of reading in millimeter in case of imperial micrometer.
Thimble:
Thimble is also mounted on spindle and a scale is engraved around it perimeter of thimble.
Scale of thimble is to show the measurement value in fraction.
Ratchet:
It’s a knurled thumb gripe to rotate the spindle into desired direction for measuring process,
provided with ratchet action to avoid over tightening of micrometer across the measuring
object and also ensures equal pressure force of each measurement.
Here are some specific parts those are associated with different Types of micrometers.
Digital reading display:
Its a specific part to digital micrometers only, where it displays the measured value directly in
[Link] unique feature is its a analog display in terms of mechanism yet called digital
because of its number roller system display , same like there was analog fueling machine
display in old days petrol pumps and bikes speedometer mileage counter.

SCALES OF MICROMETRE SCREW GUAGE:

A micrometer screw gauge has two scales : the main scale and the vernier scale.

MAIN SCALE:
The main scale of a micrometer is calibrated in mm. The calibrations of the main scale of
micrometer screw gauge vary depending on the range of measurement that the micrometer
screw gauges are meant to measure. I will not centre on the main scale.
VERNIER SCALE:
The vernier scale has 50 equal divisions. Each divisions is obtained by dividing 5 by 10. The
vernier scale move a distance of 0.5mm along the main scale when it make 1 revolution by
turning round once. One division on the vernier scale equal to 0.5/50 which equal to 0.01mm
on the main scale.

ACCURACY OF MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE :

The accuracy of a micrometer screw gauge is 0.01mm or 0.001cm. This means the that the
smallest distance that a micrometer screw gauge can measure is 0.01mm or 0.001cm.

ACCURACY OF AN INSTRUMENTS :
Accuracy of an instrument is the smallest distance (or value of a particular quantity) that the
instrument can measure correctly.

STEPS TO FOLLOW WHEN READING A MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE :

Step I.
Read and record the reading of the main scale
Step II.
Read and record the reading of the vernier scale at the point where the main scale and the
vernier scale coincide.
Step III.
Multiply the reading of the vernier scale by the accuracy of the vernier scale which is
0.01mm
Step IV.
Add the result of step III to the main scale reading of step I to get the final answer which is
the reading of the vernier calliper.
 Worked Examples:
What is the readings of the reading of the micrometer meter screw gauges as shown in the
figures below?

Solution:
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒. = 4.50 𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 10
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 10 𝑥 0.01 = 0.10 𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑑𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝐼 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤
𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒. = 4.50 + 0.10 = 4.60 𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 4.60 𝑚𝑚

Problems
The vernier calipers
A vernier calliper is defined as a measuring device that is used for the measurement of linear
dimensions. It is also used for the measurement of diameters of round objects with the help of
the measuring jaws.
The word caliper means any instrument with two jaws which is used to determine the
diameters of objects. The principle of the vernier caliper is that when two scales or divisions
slightly different in size are used, then the difference between them is used to increase the
accuracy measurement.
Vernier Caliper Part Description

The main elements of the vernier caliper are the

➢ Main Scale marked in inches and fractions
➢ Vernier scale gives interpolated measurements to 0.1 mm or better
➢ Vernier scale gives interpolated measurements in fraction of an inch
➢ Thumbscrew is located at the bottom of the vernier scale.
➢ Lock screw is used to fix the position of the jaws once the object is
positioned.
➢ Depth Bar can be used to measure the depths of holes or steps.
➢ Outside jaws used to measure external diameter or width of an object.
➢ Inside jaws used to measure internal diameter of an object.
➢ Thumb grip used to block movable part to allow the easy transferring of
a measurement.

The Principle of Vernier Caliper

A scale cannot measure objects which are smaller than 1mm but a vernier caliper can
measure objects up to 1mm. As already know that vernier caliper has two scales the main
scale and the vernier scale together this arrangement is used to measure very small lengths
like 0.1mm.
Here the main scale has the least count of 1mm and vernier scale has the least count of
0.9mm. So therefore 10 unit of the main scale is 1cm whereas 10 unit of vernier scale is
0.9mm. The unit of the vernier scale is 9mm. So this difference between the main scale and
vernier scale which is 0.1mm is the working principle of vernier caliper.

Vernier Caliper Least Count

The difference between the value of one main scale division and the value of one Vernier
scale division is known as the least count of the Vernier. Let’s assume if the value of one
main scale division is 1mm and the total number of division on vernier scale 10mm then the
least count will be 0.1mm. Thus least count is defined as the smallest distance that can be
measured from an instrument.

𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 1/10 = 0.1𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡

Vernier Caliper Zero Error

Zero error in the vernier caliper is a mathematical error due to which, the zero of the vernier
scale does not coincide with the zero of the main scale. In other words, if the zero mark on
the vernier scale doesn’t coincide with the zero mark on the main scale, then the error that
occurs is called zero error.
They are of 2 types.
➢ No zero error
➢ Positive zero error
➢ Negative zero error

1) No Zero Error
 In no zero error, when we bring two jaws together. You will see zero of the Main scale
is coinciding with the zero of the vernier scale.

2) Positive Zero Error

In positive zero error, let’s bring these jaws together. You see, the zero of vernier scale
is ahead of main scale zero. Or you can say zero of vernier scale is at the right side of
main scale zero.

3) Negative Zero Error

In negative zero error, we will bring the two jaws together. Here you can see zero of
vernier scale is the back side of main scale zero. Or to the left of main scale zero.
 Types of Vernier Caliper
Following are the different types of Vernier Caliper:
 Flat edge vernier caliper
 Knife edge vernier caliper
 Vernier gear tooth caliper
 Vernier depth gauge
 Flat and knife edge vernier caliper
 Vernier height gauge
 Vernier dail caliper

Dial Indicator
Dial Indicator is the most commonly used mechanical comparator. It works on the
principle of Rack and pinion system i.e., the linear movement of the spindle is
magnified by rack and pinion arrangement. It consists of a robust base whose surface
is flat and a pillar supporting a bracket in which a spindle fitted with a pinion and a
dial scale. By the use of slip gauges, the dial scale is set to zero representing the basic
size of the part. This is used for inspection of small machined parts. This type of
comparator used with different attachments.
So that it may be used for a large number of works. For example, with a V-block
attachment, it can be used for checking out of roundness of a cylindrical component
as shown in the figure

OSCILLOSCOPES
In many applications, observing certain voltage waveforms in a circuit plays a crucial role in
understanding the operation of the circuit. For that purpose several measurement instruments
are used like voltmeter, ammeter, or the oscilloscope. An oscilloscope (sometimes
abbreviated as “scope”) is a voltage sensing electronic instrument that is used to visualize
certain voltage waveforms. An oscilloscope can display the variation of a voltage waveform
in time on the oscilloscope’s screen.
A probe is used to connect the oscilloscope to the circuit. Figure 1 shows an oscilloscope and
a probe connected to it.

Figure 2 shows a typical probe. Oscilloscope shows the potential difference between the two
terminals of the probe. The terminal ending with a hook is usually connected to the node in
the circuit whose voltage is of interest. The other terminal is usually (but not always)
connected to the ground. The probes are attached to input channels of the oscilloscope. Most
oscilloscopes have at least two input channels and each channel can display a waveform on
the screen. Multiple channels are useful for comparing waveforms. For example, one can
observe the voltage waveforms at the input and the output terminals of a circuit
simultaneously, by using a two channel oscilloscope.
Analog and Digital
Electronic equipments can be divided into two types: analog and digital. Analog equipment
works with continuously variable voltages, while digital equipment works with binary
numbers (1 and 0’s) that may represent voltage samples. For example, a conventional cassette
player is an analog device; a compact disc player is a digital device.
Oscilloscopes also come in analog and digital types. An analog oscilloscope works by
directly applying a voltage being measured to an electron beam moving across the
oscilloscope screen. The voltage deflects the beam up and down proportionally, tracing the
waveform on the screen. This gives an immediate picture of the waveform. In contrast, a
digital oscilloscope samples the waveform and uses an analog-to-digital converter (or ADC)
to convert the voltage being measured into digital information. It then uses this digital
information to reconstruct the waveform on the screen.

Figure 3: Digital and Analog Oscilloscopes Display Waveforms.

 Analog Oscilloscopes
An analog oscilloscope displays the voltage waveforms by deflecting an electron
beam generated by an electron gun inside a cathode-ray tube on to a fluorescent
coating. Because of the use of the cathode ray tube, analog oscilloscopes are also
known as cathode ray oscilloscopes. To understand how an analog scope displays the
voltage waveforms, it is necessary to understand what is inside the unit. The
following section describes the general principles of the operation of cathode ray
oscilloscopes.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope Principles:
Figure 4 shows the structure, and the main components of a cathode ray tube (CRT).
Figure 5 shows the face plane of the CRO screen.

Electron beam generated by the electron gun first deflected by the deflection plates,
and then directed onto the fluorescent coating of the CRO screen, which produces a
visible light spot on the face plane of the oscilloscope screen.

A detailed representation of a CRT is given in Figure 6. The CRT is composed of two

main parts,
➢ Electron Gun
➢ Deflection System

Electron Gun
Electron gun provides a sharply focused electron beam directed toward the fluorescent-coated
screen. The thermally heated cathode emits electrons in many directions. The control grid
provides an axial direction for the electron beam and controls the number and speed of
electrons in the beam.
 The momentum of the electrons determines the intensity, or brightness, of the light emitted
from the fluorescent coating due to the electron bombardment. Because electrons are
negatively charged, a repulsion force is created by applying a negative voltage to the control
grid, to adjust their number and speed. A more negative voltage results in less number of
electrons in the beam and hence decreased brightness of the beam spot.
Since the electron beam consists of many electrons, the beam tends to diverge. This is
because the similar (negative) charges on the electrons repulse each other. To compensate for
such repulsion forces, an adjustable electrostatic field is created between two cylindrical
anodes, called the focusing anodes. The variable positive voltage on the second anode
cylinder is therefore used to adjust the focus or sharpness of the bright spot.

The Deflection System

The deflection system consists of two pairs of parallel plates, referred to as the vertical and
horizontal deflection plates. One of the plates in each set is permanently connected to the
ground (zero volt), whereas the other plate of each set is connected to input signals or
triggering signal of the CRO.

As shown in Figure 7, the electron beam passes through the deflection plates. In reference to
the schematic diagram in Figure 8, a positive voltage applied to the Y input terminal causes
the electron beam to deflect vertically upward, due to attraction forces, while a negative
voltage applied to the Y input terminal causes the electron beam to deflect vertically
downward, due to repulsion forces. Similarly, a positive voltage applied to the X input
terminal will cause the electron beam to deflect horizontally toward the right, while a
negative voltage applied to the X input terminal will cause the electron beam to deflect
horizontally toward the left of the screen.
The amount of vertical or horizontal deflection is directly proportional to the corresponding
applied voltage. When the electrons hit the screen, the phosphor emits light and a visible light
spot is seen on the screen.

Since the amount of deflection is proportional to the applied voltage, actually the voltages Vy
and Vx determine the coordinates of the bright spot created by the electron beam.

Example 1: Suppose Vx = sin(t), Vy = cos(t) are applied to the horizontal and vertical
deflection plates respectively. Then the bright spot would follow a circular path on the CRO
screen.

Example 2:
Figure 10-a.

Figure 10-b.
In Figure 10-a, the input signal 𝑉𝑦(𝑡) is applied to the vertical deflection plates, whereas the
horizontal deflection plates are connected to ground. It is assumed that the electron beam is
kept at the extreme left position when the horizontal deflection plates are connected to
ground. Under this configuration, the bright spot in the CRO screen will follow a vertical
path (will go up and down) at the extreme left position of the screen.

In Figure 10-b, the input signal 𝑉𝑠(𝑡) is applied to the horizontal deflection plates, whereas
the vertical deflection plates are connected to ground. This time, the bright spot will travel
from extreme left to extreme right end of the screen and will stop there.

In Figure 10-c, the signals 𝑉𝑦(𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑠(𝑡) are applied to the vertical and the horizontal
deflection plates respectively. This time the bright spot will follow a sinusoidal path, resulting
a visualization of the input signal 𝑉𝑦(𝑡) on the CRO screen.

Actually the bright spot must follow the same path fast and repetitively (at least 30 times in a
second) so that the human eye can perceive the motion of the bright spot as a continuous
curve. Therefore, in order to display the waveform on the CRO screen for the example in
figure 10-c, the signals 𝑉𝑦(𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑠(𝑡) should be applied to the vertical and the horizontal
deflection plates periodically and in synchronization. The next section discusses the details of
this procedure and depicts how CRO handles this problem.

Displaying a Voltage Waveform

In numerous applications it will be required to display a periodical voltage waveform as a
function of time. By applying the voltage to be displayed on the CRO, to the vertical
deflection plates (𝑉𝑦), the vertical deflection of the beam spot will be proportional to the
magnitude of this voltage. It is then necessary to convert the x axis (horizontal deflection)
into a time axis. Notice that, in the example given in figure 10-c, the voltage waveform 𝑉𝑠(𝑡)
(which varies linearly in time before the bright spot reaches the extreme right end of the
screen) is used for this purpose and the bright spot have traveled the path determined by
𝑉𝑦(𝑡). If the signal to be observed is periodic, then a periodic voltage waveform that varies
linearly with time, as shown in figure below, is applied to the horizontal deflection plates.
This type of waveform is called the sawtooth waveform.

When 𝑠(𝑡) is zero volt, the bright spot is at the extreme left-hand position, and when 𝑠(𝑡) is
maximum, the bright spot is at the extreme right position. Therefore, the bright spot travels
from extreme left to extreme right in a time equal to the trace time. During the flyback time,
which is usually very short compared to trace time, a high negative voltage pulse is applied to
the control grid of the electron gun to prevent electron beams reaching the CRO screen. This
action is called blanking and prevents any reverse retrace (or shadow) as the beam is going
back to the extreme left-hand position. The time period including the trace time and the
flyback time is called the sweep period.

The period of the sawtooth waveform plays a crucial role in obtaining a steady waveform on
the CRO screen. The following section discusses the requirements on the period of the
sawtooth waveform and the need of a synchronization between the sawtooth waveform and
the input waveform.

Triggering

Suppose the input 𝑉𝑦(𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠(𝑡) shown in Figure 12 are applied to the vertical and
horizontal deflection plates of the CRO respectively. Note that, At the beginning of each
sweep cycle, (i.e when the bright spot is at extreme left) 𝑉𝑦(𝑡) gets exactly the same value
(The points indicated by red circles). Therefore the bright spot is following exactly the same
path in each sweep cycle. Thus, we can observe a steady waveform on CRO screen. Notice
that the time between the beginning of two consecutive sweep cycles is a multiple of input
signal period. (𝑖. 𝑒. = 𝑛 𝑇. 𝑇, are shown on the figure 12, n is a positive integer.)
For the given case, the bright spot is following different paths in different sweep cycles,
therefore we can not obtain a steady waveform on CRO screen.

In order to obtain stable and stationary waveform displays, the sawtooth signal should be
applied to the horizontal deflection plates, in synchronism with the waveform being
displayed. CRO handles this synchronization problem by using the following structure.

Notice that, the voltage waveform which is to be displayed on the CRO screen (Yinput in this
case) is applied to the vertical amplifier. In the amplification stage, only the amplitude of the
input waveform is changed. After the amplification stage, the output of the vertical amplifier
is applied to the vertical deflection plates. Then in order to obtain a steady waveform on the
CRO screen, a sawtooth waveform having a period which is an integer multiple of the period
of the input voltage waveform should be applied to the horizontal deflection plates.

Pulse Generator:
The main function of the pulse generator (PG) (see figure 13.) is to produce periodical pulses
with a period of T, which is equal to the period of the input signal. For that purpose, the input
signal is compared to a certain voltage level (‘Level’ on the figure 14). Producing pulses each
time the input voltage is equal to that certain voltage level, may seem to result pulses which
are periodic with period T. But this is not the case. Notice that, the ‘Level’ intersects the input
signal more than once in one period. Therefore, one of the intersection points is neglected in
each period. The decision on which intersection point to neglect is made by inspecting the
slope of the signal at the intersection point.

The pulse generator produces pulses each time the input voltage level is same as the ‘Level’,
after checking the slope of the signal at that time instant. In the example given in figure 14,
there are two intersection points at each period, and the one with the negative slope (blue
points) are neglected. (The selected slope is positive for that case). Actually, the sign of the
slope can be selected by using the +/- button of the CRO. Also the voltage level that the
signal is being compared to, can be adjusted by using the level button on the oscilloscope.

Sweep Generator

The main function of the sweep generator is to produce one cycle of a sawtooth waveform,
when it receives a pulse at its input. If the sweep generator receives a trigger pulse during its
sweep cycle (i.e., during the trace period 𝑇𝑟), it will simply ignore the pulse and continue
with the completion of its sweep cycle.

Depending on the selected level and the slope of the input signal, the output of the pulse
generator will consist of narrow trigger pulses separated from each other by one period T.
Each time the input signal crosses a preselected level (and a preselected slope), the pulse
generator emits one narrow trigger pulse. The emitted pulse triggers the sweep generator to
begin producing one cycle of the sweep waveform; its duration is the trace period 𝑇𝑟. At the
end of each sweep cycle, the sweep generator stops its output and awaits the arrival of the
next trigger pulse before producing a new sweep cycle.

Notice that if the sweep generator receives a trigger pulse during its sweep cycle (i.e., during
the trace period Tr), it will simply ignore the pulse and continue with the completion of its
sweep cycle. The trigger pulse received after the completion of the trace period will initiate
the new sweep cycle. This allows the scope to display more than one cycle, of period T, of the
signal connected to its vertical deflection plates.
In the given example, first the voltage waveform to be displayed on the CRO screen is
compared with a voltage level. The blue and the red points show the intersection of the input
signal with the level. Assuming the positive slope is selected, pulse generator produces pulses
at each time the input signal is equal to ‘level’, and its slope is positive. The pulses generated
by the pulse generator, trigger the sweep generator, which produces one cycle of the sawtooh
waveform. The trace time of the sweep generator is adjusted by the time/div button which is
available on the front panel of the oscilloscope. The resulting sawtooth waveform is applied
to the horizontal deflection plates, which leads to a steady display of the input signal on the
oscilloscope screen. Notice that, at the beginning of each sweep period (when the bright spot
is at the extreme left), input signal voltage is equal to `level` and has a positive slope.
Therefore, the waveform shown on the CRO screen starts with a positive slope at the extreme
left and its value is equal to the ‘level’. One can change these settings by varying the ‘level’
control or the +/- button of the oscilloscope.

The whole process is called triggering because, obtaining a steady plot on the CRO screen
can only be achieved by producing pulses at the input of the Sweep Generator at the correct
time instances. (i.e. triggering the Sweep Generator at the correct time instances.)

X-Y Operation

When the variation of one voltage waveform, Vy(t), as a function of another, Vx(t),
eliminating the parameter time, t, is desired, X-Y mode of operation is used. In X-Y mode,
one signal is applied to the vertical deflection plates whereas the other signal is applied to the
horizontal deflection plates. The XY button on the front panel of the oscilloscope disconnects
the triggering signal from the horizontal deflection system, and connects the second input
signal instead. This process is done by using a switch shown as ‘X-Y button’ on the figure
below.

External Triggering

Rather than the input signal itself, an external signal can also be used for triggering. For that
purpose multi-positional switch, which corresponds to Ext. Button of the CRO, should be set
to position 2, as shown in Figure 16. The external signal should satisfy certain conditions in
order to obtain a steady waveform on the CRO screen. Keeping in my that the period of the
sawtooth waveform, s(t), should be an integer multiple of the period of the input signal, can
you find the conditions needed on the frequency of the external triggering signal?

Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSO)

The concept behind the digital oscilloscope is somewhat different to an analogue scope.
Rather than processing the signals in an analogue fashion, the DSO converts them into a
digital format using an analogue to digital converter (ADC), then it stores the digital data in
the memory, and then processes the signals digitally, finally it converts the resulting signal in
a picture format to be displayed on the screen of the scope.

Since the waveform is stored in a digital format, the data can be processed either within the
oscilloscope itself, or even by a PC connected to it. One advantage of using the DSO is that
the stored data can be used to visualize or process the signal at any time. The analogue scopes
do not have memory therefore the signal can be displayed only instantaneously. The transient
parts of the signal (which may vanish even in milliseconds or microseconds) can not be
observed using an analogue oscilloscope.

The DSO’s are widely used in many applications in view of their flexibility and performance.

Measurement Techniques

The major concern in observing a signal on the oscilloscope screen is to make voltage and
time measurements. These measurements may be helpful in understanding the behavior of a
circuit component, or the circuit itself, depending on what you measure. Except for the X-Y
mode of operation, the oscilloscope displays the voltage value of the waveform as a function
of time. The oscilloscope screen is partitioned into the grids, which divides both the
horizontal axis(voltage) and the vertical axis(time) into divisions which will be helpful in
making the measurements. See Figure 17

Obviously one needs to know the time or the voltage values corresponding to each division,
in order to make accurate calculations. These values are determined by two variables namely
the 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆/𝒅𝒊𝒗 and the volt/div both of which can be adjusted from the relevant buttons
available on the front panel of the oscilloscope (see Figure 10-13). Also note that, the
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒/𝑑𝑖𝑣 button controls the trace time of the sweep generator, whereas the 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡/𝑑𝑖𝑣 button
controls the `gain` in the vertical amplifiers in the vertical deflection system. Typical
quantities, which are of primer interest when observing a signal with the scope, are shown in
Figure 18.
For the given figure, suppose that the variables volt/div and time/div are set to:

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡/𝑑𝑖𝑣 = 2𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠/𝑑𝑖𝑣.
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒/𝑑𝑖𝑣 = 1𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑/𝑑𝑖𝑣

Then the corresponding values shown on the figure are calculated to be;

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 6𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 12 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝐷𝐶 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 (𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒) = 2 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 3 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 1/𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 333 𝐻𝑧

Note that the signal 𝑠(𝑡), shown on the oscilloscope screen can be expressed as,

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡) + 𝑉𝑑𝑐

= 6 sin(2𝜋333𝑡) + 2
= 6 sin(666𝜋𝑡) + 2
Phase difference:
In some applications, one may need to monitor or compare two or more signals
simultaneously. A typical example can be the comparison of the input voltage with the output
voltage of a two-port (input and output ports) circuit. If the signals that are being monitored
have the same frequency, a time delay may occur between the signals (i.e. one signal may
lead the other or vice versa). Two waves that have the same frequency, have a phase
difference that is constant (independent of t). When the phase difference (modulo 2 ) is zero,
the waves are said to be in phase with each other. Otherwise, they are out of phase with each
other. If the phase difference is 180 degrees ( radians), then the two signals are said to be in
anti-phase. If the peak amplitudes of two anti-phase waves are equal, their sum is zero at all
values of time, t.
The phase difference is expressed in terms of radians or degrees. In Dual Mode of the
oscilloscope the phase difference can be calculated easily as follows.

Given the two signals having the same frequency, as shown in Figure 21,

Note that, one has to specify the leading or the lagging signal in order to fully describe the
time difference between the two signals. In the figure above, the signal represented with
dashed curve leads the other. Suppose that the signal represented by the dashed curve is
connected to Channel I of the oscilloscope, and the other one is connected to Channel II. In
such a case Channel I is leading the Channel II with phase difference equal to , and Channel
II is lagging the Channel I with phase difference equal to . Determining the leading or the
lagging signal may be frustrating at first, but note that the dashed curve reaches its maximum
value before the other does.

The phase difference between the signals can also be determined in XY mode of the
oscilloscope. In the XY mode, the x-axis data is taken from one channel, y-axis data is taken
from the other. In that way, Channel I vs Channel II graph can be obtained, so that the
variation of a signal with respect to another can be observed. Figure 22 shows a typical graph
in XY mode, of two signals having a constant phase difference.
Phase difference is equal to,
𝐴
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1
𝐵
𝐵
One can show this relation by expressing one signal as 𝑦(𝑡) = 2 sin (𝑤𝑡 ± 𝜃) and the other
𝐶
signal as 𝑥(𝑡) = 2 sin (𝑤𝑡) Then consider the value of 𝑦(𝑡) when 𝑥(𝑡) is zero volts. It should
be noted that, the center of the ellipsoidal shape (sometimes circular or linear shapes) on the
screen should be at the origin of CRO unless any DC component is added to one of the
signals.
In XY mode, the leading or the lagging signal can not be determined. One has to switch to
DUAL mode in order to specify the leading signal.
Figure 23 shows typical graphs in XY mode corresponding to different values of phase
difference.

Uses of Oscilloscopes in Biomedical Engineering:

1. Electrophysiological Signal Analysis
➢ ECG/EKG monitoring
➢ Neural signal recording
➢ Muscle activity measurement (EMG)
➢ Brain wave analysis (EEG)
2. Medical Device Testing
➢ Cardiac pacemaker signal verification
➢ Electrical stimulation device characterization
➢ Medical equipment performance validation
 ➢ Implantable device signal assessment
3. Diagnostic Instrument Development
➢ Analyzing electrical properties of biosensors
➢ Monitoring physiological signal characteristics
➢ Evaluating transducer performance
➢ Verifying signal processing circuits
4. Research Applications
➢ Neurological research signal visualization
➢ Cardiac research signal analysis
➢ Electrophysiological experiment monitoring
➢ Biomedical sensor development

Frequency Meters

A frequency meter is a device that measures the number of times a periodic electrical signal
repeats itself within a set amount of time. It's used to determine the frequency of a waveform,
which is represented by changes in voltage or current in an electronic circuit.

There are different kinds of frequency meters:

• Moving Iron Frequency Meter
• Electrodynamic Frequency Meter
• Vibrating Reed Frequency Meter

Moving Iron Frequency Meter

A soft iron piece when attracted or repelled by the magnetic field a coil is moves. A pointer is
attached with the moving piece. Then shows deflection on a calibrated scale. These
instruments are simple cheap and reasonably accurate and can be used for ac/dc
measurement.
There are two general types of moving instruments, which are
➢ Attraction type moving iron instruments
➢ Repulsion type moving iron instruments

Attraction type operates on the principle of attraction of a single piece of soft iron into a
magnetic field. Repulsion type operates on the principle of repulsion of two adjacent iron
pieces which is magnetized by the same magnetic field. Repulsion type of measuring
instruments is more sensitive. Because in these instruments large operating torque is
developed. This torque is developed by having two iron elements positioned close together
inside the field coil where the magnetizing effect is maximum.

Attraction type

The earliest and simplest form of attraction type moving iron instrument uses a solenoid and
moving oval-shaped soft iron pivoted eccentrically as shown in Fig. To this iron, a pointer is
attached so that it may deflect along with the moving iron over a graduated scale. The iron is
made of sheet metal specially shaped to give a scale as early uniform as possible. The moving
iron is drawn into the field of the solenoid when current flows through it. The movement of
the iron is always from the weaker magnetic field outside the coil into the stronger magnetic
field inside the coił.
 Attraction type moving iron instrument

When the current to be measured is passed through the solenoid Then a magnetic field is set
up inside the solenoid, which magnetizes the iron. Thus, the iron is attracted into the coil
causing the spindle and the pointer to rotate. Such instruments normally have spring control
and pneumatic damping. In Fig. gravity control attraction type instrument.

It has a scale cramped at the lower end and greatly expanded at the upper end. As the
operating torque is quite low when the moving iron is just entering the solenoid and increases
rapidly as iron is drawn further in. However, it does permit the development of large working
torque. It is still used in some instruments requiring high operating torque.

Repulsion Type

When the current to be measured is passed through the solenoid, which is wound with
insulated copper wire on a cylindrical nonmagnetic former, a magnetic field is set up inside
the solenoid and the two irons are magnetized in the same direction. This sets up a repulsive
force so moving iron is repelled by fixed iron, thereby results in the motion of the moving
iron carrying the pointer.

The pointer comes in a rest in a deflected position when equilibrium is attained between the
repulsion force of the working elements and the controlling force. Control of the movement is
either by hair-spring, when the instrument is to be employed in any position. Or by gravity,
when the instrument is to be operated only vertically.

Damping used is air friction (pneumatic) one. Eddy current damping is not possible because
of the presence of permanent magnet needed for such purpose would affect the deflection.
Scale of Moving Iron Instrument
The repulsion of iron is proportional to the square of the current. So the scale is uneven,
being crowded at the lower values and wide spread at the higher values. The iron may be so
shaped and arranged that the scale is spread out to some extent at the lower values of current.

Errors in moving iron instruments

The errors usually occurring in moving iron instruments are friction, temperature, stray
magnetic field, hysteresis, frequency and wave form. The first four errors affect the
instrument on AC and DC. While last two affect only on ac.

Stray Magnetic Field

Stray magnetic field error may be serious if not guarded against because of the weakness of
the operating magnetic field in case of moving iron instruments. This error is minimized by
the following methods:
➢ By shielding the instrument with the help of steel case.
➢ By sheet steel lining to the case.

Hysteresis Error
Hysteresis error is a serious type of error in moving iron instrument specially when used on a
circuit. This error may be reduced by the following methods:
➢ By making the iron part short. So that they demagnetize themselves.
➢ By choosing a value of flux density in the iron or by using a mu-metal.
➢ By permalloy having negligible hysteresis.

Frequency Change

Change in frequency may cause due to change of reactance of the operating coil. It is also due
to the changes in magnitude of eddy current set up in the metal part of the instrument near the
operating portion. The change in instrument reactance owing to change in frequency causes
serious error in the case of voltmeters. The eddy current error affects both the measuring
instruments equally. The frequency error may be compensated for the connecting a suitable
capacitor in parallel with the swamping resistance R.
Waveform
Moving iron instruments may be seriously affected by waveform. It affects on both account
of the change in the form of flux waveform.

Advantages of moving iron instruments

1. The instruments can be used both in ac as well as dc circuits.
2. These instruments are simple in construction of moving part.
3. The stationary part of the instruments is very Simple.
4. They are less costly.
5. These instruments possess high operating torque.
6. These instruments can withstand overload momentarily.

Disadvantages of moving iron instruments

1. Scale of these instruments is not linear.
2. Power consumption is higher for low voltage range.
3. If the temperature increases then the stiffness of the spring decreases.
4. The errors that are caused by hysteresis in the iron of the operating system and due
to stray magnetic field.
5. Change in frequency and in waveform causes serious errors in ac measurements.
 Electrodynamic Frequency Meter
This is also known as a moving-coil frequency meter and is a ratiometer type of
instrument.
Principle. The working principle of a ratiometer type frequency meter is shown in Fig.
(a) It consists of two coils X and Y rigidly fixed together with their planes at right
angles to each other and mounted on the same spindle. The coils are placed in the
field of a permanent magnet. There is no mechanical control torque and the current
leads to the two coils are fine ligaments designed to have a negligible effect on the
position of the coils.

If G1 and G2 are the displacement constants of the two coils and 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 are the two
currents, then their respective torques are 𝑇1 = 𝐺1𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 and 𝑇2 = 𝐺2𝐼2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃.
The currents in the two coils are in such directions See Fig. (a) that the two torques
oppose each other. It is clear that if angular deflection e increases, torque 𝑇 (=
𝐺1𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) decreases while the torque 𝑇2 (= 𝐺2𝐼2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) [Link], an
equilibrium position is possible for some angle

By modifying the shape of the pole faces and the angle between the coils, the ratio
𝐼1/𝐼2 is made proportional to 𝜃 instead of 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃.

i.e., deflection is proportional to the ratio of the two currents 𝐼1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 and hence the name
ratiometer type instrument.
Construction. Fig. (b) shows the various parts of an electrodynamic frequency meter. It
consists of two coils 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑌 rigidly fixed at right angles to each other and placed in the
magnetic field of a permanent magnet. The two coils are connected through respective bridge
rectifiers across the supply whose frequency is to be measured. The direct current I1 flowing
through coil 𝑋 is the rectified current 𝐼𝑐 drawn by the capacitor C. Similarly, direct current
I2 flowing through coil Y is the rectified current IR drawn by the resistor R. A pointer is
attached to the coils which moves over a calibrated scale.

Working. The meter is connected across the supply whose frequency f is to be measured. The
direct currents I1 and I2 flowing through coils X and Y respectively produce two torques
which oppose each other. The pointer will come to rest at angle e for which the two torques
are equal.

In the equilibrium position, 𝜃 ∝ 𝐼1 / 𝐼2

FIGURE (B)
Assuming sinusoidal waveform, the direct currents /1 and 12 will be proportional to the
r.m.s. values of IC an IR respectively.

i. e., deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the supply frequency f Clearly, such
metershave linear scale.
An inspection of exp. (i) reveals that deflection is independent of supply voltage.
Therefore, such instruments can be used over a fairly wide range of voltages. However, if the
voltage becomestoo low, the distortion introduced by the rectifiers prevents an accurate
indication of frequency.

Advantages:-
• Negligible maintenance is required
• The output voltage is nearly proportional to the velocity
• Robust and inexpensive instrument

Disadvantages:-
• Stray magnetic field effects the performance of this device
• Limited frequency response

Vibrating Reed Frequency Meter

One simple but crude method of frequency measurement in power systems utilizes the
principle of mechanical resonance
Every physical object possessing the property of elasticity (springiness) has an inherent
frequency at which it will prefer to vibrate
Tuning fork is a great example of this: strike it once and it will continue to vibrate at a tone
specific to its length
Longer tuning forks have lower resonant frequencies: their tones will be lower on the
musical scale than shorter forks
Consist of thin steel strips call reeds
All reeds are not similar to each other
The natural frequency of the reed depends upon their weight and dimensions
Reeds are arranged in the ascending order of frequency, the difference in frequency is 0.5Hz.
Reeds are free at the bottom ends and are free at top ends
Reeds have a portion bent over at the free end to serve as a flag.

Thin steel strips called reeds are placed in a row alongside close to an electromagnet .All
reeds are similar with their natural frequencies of vibration different and are arranged in
ascending order of frequencies . Variations in natural frequency are obtained either by
variation in their lengths or by adjusting of their masses .Reeds are fixed at bottom end and
are free at top end with a portion bend to serve as flag.
The difference in natural frequencies of two adjacent reeds is usually ½ . Reeds are
influenced, directly or indirectly, by an electromagnet’s alternating field . Core of the
electromagnet is laminated and the coil is connected in series with a resistance across the
supply whose frequency is to be measured .The external connection is, thus, same as
voltmeter.

Vibrating Reed Type Frequency Meter

Reed

Coil of electromagnet carries a current 𝑖, which alternates at the supply frequency . The force
of attraction between the reeds and the electromagnet is proportional to 𝑖 2 and therefore this
force varies twice at the frequency . All the reeds tend to vibrate, but the reed whose natural
frequency is equal to twice the frequency of supply tends to vibrate the most . Vibration of
other reeds is unobservable.

The user of this meter views the ends of all those unequal length reeds as they are collectively
shaken at the frequency of the applied AC voltage to the coil .Obviously, these meters are not
precision instruments, but they are very simple & therefore easy to manufacture to be
[Link] range is about 6 Hz, say, from 47 Hz to 53 Hz . Indications are independent of
waveform .There should not be too much variation in supply voltage
Advantages
Its indications are independent.
Its readings are reliable.
These are cheap.
Disadvantages
The reading is not be observed properly if the frequency difference is half cycle between the
adjacent reeds.
These instruments are not accurate to provide the exact reading on its scale.

Uses of Frequency Meters in Biomedical Engineering

1. Monitoring Medical Device Functionality

➢ Pacemakers and Defibrillators:
Frequency meters ensure that these devices deliver electrical pulses at the
correct frequency to regulate heartbeats. They help verify the pacing rate and
detect malfunctions.
➢ Ultrasound Machines:
Measure the operating frequency of ultrasound transducers to ensure accurate
imaging and therapeutic performance.

2. Signal Analysis in Diagnostics

➢ ECG and EEG Analysis:
Measure the frequency of heartbeats (ECG) or brainwave activity
(EEG) to diagnose arrhythmias or neurological disorders.
▪ Identify abnormal patterns, such as atrial fibrillation or seizures.
➢ Audiology:
Used to measure sound wave frequencies during audiometric testing to
calibrate hearing aids and diagnose hearing loss.

3. Testing and Calibration of Biomedical Instruments

➢ Biosignal Amplifiers:
Verify the frequency response of amplifiers to ensure they operate within the
required range for signal amplification.
➢ Medical Imaging Systems:
Confirm the operating frequency of systems like MRI and CT scanners to
maintain image quality and avoid artifacts.

4. Research and Development

➢ Biomedical Signal Processing:
Analyze and optimize the frequency content of physiological signals during
the development of medical devices.
➢ Design of Wearable Devices:
Validate the frequencies of sensors in wearable health monitoring devices,
such as those for heart rate or respiratory rate.

5. Ensuring Compliance with Standards

➢ Frequency meters are used to verify that biomedical devices meet regulatory
requirements for frequency ranges and signal stability, as defined by
organizations like the FDA and IEC.
6. Troubleshooting Biomedical Systems
➢ Frequency Drift Detection:
Identify deviations in the frequency of oscillators or signal generators in
medical devices, indicating potential component failure.
➢ Noise Identification:
Measure and analyze unwanted frequencies in electronic systems to reduce
interference in bio-signal acquisition.

Examples
1. Pacemaker Validation:
Measure the pulse frequency to ensure it matches the programmed settings (e.g., 60–
120 beats per minute).
2. EEG Monitoring:
Determine the frequency bands of brain activity, such as alpha (8–12 Hz) or beta (12–
30 Hz), for diagnostic purposes.
3. Hearing Aids Calibration:
Adjust and verify the frequency response of hearing aids to ensure optimal
amplification across sound frequencies.

AUDIOMETRY

Audition
Audition is the ability to hear. Hearing is the function of the body by which sound is
perceived. The ear is the part of the body which enables this function to take place. The ear
(Exhibit 1-1) is contained mostly within the temporal bone, which is one of the lateral
surfaces of the base of the skull. The ear is subdivided into external, middle and inner ear.
Sound waves picked up and directed by the external ear travel to the eardrum (middle ear)
and cause it to vibrate. These vibrations move three small bones in the middle ear which set
in motion the fluid in the internal ear. This fluid movement stimulates the nerve cells located
there and they in turn transmit impulses to the hearing centers of the brain.

Properties of Sound
Sound has three important characteristics: pitch, loudness and quality.

Pitch or tone is that feature of sound which is dependent upon the frequency of the sound
waves (frequency being the number of vibrations or cycles of the sound waves per second)

Loudness is that feature of sound which is dependent on the intensity of the sound waves.

Quality is that feature of sound which is dependent upon the higher parts of the sound or
overtones. Sounds begin by vibrating as a whole and then rapidly divide into parts which
vibrate on their own at their own frequency. Thus, although a sound may have the same
frequency and intensity, the quality allows us to distinguish whether it is a zither or a drum.
Audiology methods

Method of Audiometry
Auditory sensitivity may best be ascertained by the use of an audiometer, which is an
electronic oscillator capable of emitting pure tones over a wide range. The examinee is seated
in a soundproof room and fitted with a set of earphones to measure his/her threshold
(slightest perceptible sound) for pure tone. The hearing loss is measured in decibels (dB’s).
Various frequencies are selected and the dB’s varied until the examinee reports s/he can hear
sound. The threshold for each frequency is recorded. The entire range of audible pitches is
tested and plotted on an audiogram. The audiogram discloses deviations from normal values
in the entire range of audible frequencies. The greater the number of decibels, the greater the
hearing loss.

Method of Tympanometry
Tympanometry is a test of the status of the middle ear measured at the level of the eardrum
(tympanic membrane). It is a test of the middle ear function only and does not assess hearing
ability. The test is conducted by inserting a plastic tip into the ear. There are usually three
connections through the plug: a pressure gauge, a pure tone source and a calibrated
microphone. A pure tone is sent through the tympanometer and the depth of the tone sent
back from the eardrum, recorded by means of the tube connected to the microphone. In this
way, the flexibility (impedance) of the eardrum can be calculated. There is a standard range
of flexibility of the eardrum which is considered normal. Any disease process that either
increases (fluid in the middle ear) or decreases (perforated eardrum) the flexibility of the
eardrum interferes with the efficiency with which sound can be transmitted through the
middle ear and may be an indication of a hearing loss.
Audiometer
Audiometry is the technique to identify and quantitatively determine the degree of hearing
loss of a person by measuring his hearing sensitivity, so that suitable medical treatment or one
of the appropriate hearing aids and assistive devices can be prescribed. In audiological
investigations, the hearing sensitivity is tested for pure tones, speech or other sound stimuli.
The result, when plotted graphically, is called an audiogram. The electronic instrument used
for measuring the hearing threshold level is called an audiometer. Using it, the test tones of
different frequencies and levels are generated and presented to the patient and hearing
thresholds are determined on the basis of patient s response. The auditory system and its
disorders are described. Different audiometric tests, techniques and various audiometers are
discussed.

Purpose

An audiometer typically transmits recorded sounds such as pure tones or speech to the
headphones of the test subject at varying frequencies and intensities, and records the subject's
responses to produce an audiogram of threshold sensitivity, or speech understanding profile.

Disorders of the Auditory system

Our system of hearing comprises of two sections viz. a peripheral section which is our ear
and a central section located in the brain which carries the sensation from the ears to the
auditory area of the cerebral cortex. The auditory area of the cerebral cortex (called auditory
cortex) is the area of the brain, which is dedicated to and specialised in interpreting the sound
which comes to our ears. The ear receives the sound in the form of sound energy, which is a
form of vibration. This vibrating energy enters the external part of the ear (called external
auditory meatus) and vibrates the ear drum (technically known as tympanic membrane). This
vibration of the tympanic membrane is picked up by a chain of small bones called malleus,
incus and stapes, which conduct this vibration to a specialised organ called cochlea .The
cochlea is the transducer of the hearing system. The function of the cochlea is to convent the
vibratory energy into electrical energy. Once this has been achieved, this electrical energy
enters the nerve of hearing (called auditory nerve) and carries the sensation through different
parts of the brain to the auditory cortex, where the sensation of sound is analysed and
interpreted. For proper hearing each and every part of this system right from the external
auditory meatus to the auditory cortex has to be normal.
Auditory system
A disorder in any of them will cause deafness. The ear has three sections viz.- the external
auditory meatus, the middle ear and the inner ear, as shown in Fig.1. The external ear is the
area from the pinna (technically called auricle) to the ear drum.
The middle ear is from the ear drum to the cochlea, it consists of the three small bones called
ossicles which are placed in a closed space (called tympanum) filled with air. The inner ear is
the portion of the ear deeper to this and it houses the transducer (called cochlea) and also the
organ of balance (called vestibular labyrinth).

When sound reaches the inner ear through the eardrum, this phenomenon is called air
conduction. This is the usual path of sounds to reach the eardrum. Sound, particularly in the
low frequency range, may reach the inner ear via the bones in the head rather than from the
eardrum, this phenomenon being called bone conduction. The normal process via the ear
canal is called air conduction. Wearing earplugs results in a greater percentage of the sound
heard coming from bone conduction. Normally only a small fraction of sound is received in
this way; however, deaf people whose inner ear still functions normally may be able to hear
sound conducted to the ear in this way, for instance by holding between the teeth a wooden
rod connected to a vibrating object.

Sound perception

Sound is generated in nature whenever an object vibrates in an elastic medium like air.
Sounds in nature are complex and not pure tone or sine waves . However, all complex sounds
can be considered as a mixture of different pure tone sounds of different frequencies. The ear
is not equally sensitive to all frequencies, particularly in the low and high Frequency ranges.
The frequency response over the entire audio range has been charted, originally by Fletcher
and Munson in 1933, with later revisions by other authors, as a set of curves showing the
sound pressure levels of pure tones that are perceived as being equally loud . The curves are
plotted for each 10 Db rise in level with the reference tone being at 1 kHz, also called
loudness level contours and the Fletcher-Munson curves, as shown in Fig.2. The lowest curve
represents the threshold of hearing, the highest the threshold of pain.

The curves are lowest in the range from 1 to 5 kHz, with a dip at 4 kHz, indicating that the
ear is most sensitive to frequencies in this range. The intensity level of higher or lower tones
must be raised substantially in order to create the same impression of loudness. The phon
scale was devised to express this subjective impression of loudness, since the decibel scale
alone refers to actual sound pressure or sound intensity levels.

Although human hearing ranges from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, there is little speech information
above 8000 Hz, and perception of frequencies below 100 Hz is increasingly tactile in nature,
making them difficult to assess. Also, the loss of hearing sensitivity is observed first at high
frequency (8 kHz) and later on as the loss progresses, its effect is observed in the mid-
frequency region (1-2 kHz) as well. By the time the loss is observed in the low frequency
region, the subject will be near to deafness. Hence, audiometric tests carried out in the low
frequency region do not give any significant information about hearing loss. Therefore,
audiologists routinely test only in the range of 250-8000 Hz, often in octave steps.
Standardized frequencies tested include 250, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000, 3000, 4000, 6000, and
8000 Hz. This represents octave intervals, by convention, but intervening frequencies may
also be tested. In acoustic measurements, sound level is often given in dB, taking sound
pressure of 20 microPa as the reference level, and is known as sound pressure level (SPL).
𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑑𝐵 𝑆𝑃𝐿 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 / 20 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑃𝑎)

However, in audiometry the sound level of pure tones is given in dB by taking average
hearing threshold of normal hearing young adults as the reference, and is known as hearing
level (HL).
𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑑𝐵 𝐻𝐿
= 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 / 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔)

The hearing threshold is frequency dependent, and hence SPL corresponding to a given HL
varies with frequency. Intensity levels in audiometers are indicated in HL.

Table below gives the d𝐵 𝑆𝑃𝐿 (𝑑𝐵 𝐻𝐿) threshold values of a normal person for standard
frequencies. The "0 𝑑𝐵" hearing level in audiometry is a modal value derived from a large
population of normals. Normal values for auditory thresholds were defined by the
International Standards Organization (ISO) in 1984. These values are derived from large
population studies of normal adults 18-30 years of age.

Audiogram
An audiogram is a plot of threshold intensity versus frequency. The intensity scale in HL
increases downwards, and hence the audiogram resembles like an attenuation response, a
lower point on the audiogram indicating higher loss. A typical
audiogram (𝑑𝐵 𝐻𝐿 𝑣𝑠. 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ) comparing normal and impaired hearing is shown
in Fig.4. The dip or notch at 4 𝑘𝐻𝑧 𝑎𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛, 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑡 6 𝑘𝐻𝑧, is asymptom of noise-induced
hearing loss.

Most thresholds are approximately 0 𝑑𝐵 𝐻𝐿 for a normal ear. Points below 0 𝑑𝐵 𝐻𝐿 on the
scale denote louder threshold levels, whereas those above, expressed in negative decibels
with respect to the zero level, are less intense levels which, because of individual hearing
differences, some people may normally hear. Four separate curves can be obtained - right ear
air conduction (AC), right ear bone conduction (BC), left ear AC, and left ear BC. This
comprises the audiogram. The symbols used on most audiograms are:

x - left air conduction

o - right air conduction

Block diagram of an audiometer

Fig. 5. shows a block diagram of a basic audiometer.
1. The oscillator provides a controllable frequency range from 250 Hz to 8 kHz.
2. The equalization circuit provides frequency dependent attenuation and provides different
amount of attenuation for different output devices used (headphone, loudspeaker, and
vibrator).
3. The attenuator should be capable of controlling the output sound level over a desired range
in steps of 5 dB.
4. The noise generator provides wide band noise, which has energy spectrum equally
distributed over the test frequency range i.e. up to 8 kHz.
5. The power amplifier provides the output power of the sound level available from the
headphones and the bone vibrator.

Types of audiometric techniques

I. subjective type
II. objective type

In subjective test, the patient has to respond when he hears the presented sound. Subjective
type audiometric test involves presentation of systematically varying acoustic stimuli to the
subject and recording the responses.
Objective test only requires co-operation from the patient towards attachment of the
measuring electrodes or probes

Procedures are used to identify the hearing ability of a person.

1. Pure-tone audiometry
Pure-tone audiometry is a behavioural test used to measure hearing sensitivity. This measure
involves the peripheral and central auditory systems.
Pure-tone thresholds (PTTs) indicate the softest sound audible to an individual at least 50% of
the time.
Hearing sensitivity is plotted on an audiogram, which is a graph displaying intensity as a
function of frequency.
Pure tone audiometry is the standard behavioral assessment of an individual’s hearing. The
results of pure tone audiometry are recorded on a chart or form called an audiogram. In most
cases a pure tone audiogram is easy to obtain and provides information about peripheral
hearing acuity across the frequencies used in speech.
It allows for a quick view of how well, or how poorly, an individual can hear specific
frequencies and for a comparison of one ear to the other. In the presence of a hearing loss, the
pure tone audiogram often allows a clinician to make some inferences which, when viewed in
conjunction with the patient’s case history, can help lead to a diagnosis or determine the
likely etiology of the hearing loss.
Pure tones are generated by an audiometer and presented to the patient via headphones or, in
some cases, through loudspeakers. The audiometer allows the audiologist to select the type of
stimulus (in this case pure tones), the frequency of the tones, the intensity of the tones, the
transducer through which the stimuli are presented, and a number of other test parameters.
Transducers include supra-aural air conduction earphones, circumaural air conduction
earphones, insert air conduction earphones, bone conduction headphone, and loudspeakers
(known as “sound field”). The standard transducer for pure tone audiometry is the supra-aural
air conduction earphones (TDH-39 or TDH-50). Anytime any degree of hearing loss is
measured through these earphones, bone conduction pure tone audiometry must be
performed.

Block diagram of pure-tone audiometer.

Specifications:
i. used in routine tests, most widely used technique for determining
hearing loss.
ii. Generate test tones in octave steps from 125 to 8000 Hz.
iii. The signal intensity ranging from -10 dB to +100 dB .

PURE TONES
1. Frequency
A pure tone is a tone having a single specific frequency. The frequency of the tone is
determined by the rate or speed at which the sound source vibrates. Frequency is measured in
Hertz (Hz; named after German physicist Heinrich Hertz) or, less commonly, cycles per
second (CPS). Hz and CPS are synonymous; thus a 500 Hz tone means that the transducer, or
sound source, is vibrating 500 times per second. A 4000 Hz tone results from the transducer
vibrating at a higher rate: 4000 times per second. The 4000 Hz tone has a higher frequency
than the 500 Hz tone. The term “pitch” is often used interchangeably with frequency. While
this is generally acceptable, “frequency” is a scientific term to describe a specific aspect of a
signal, while “pitch” is a more subjective term to describe sound quality.

2. Intensity
Intensity is defined as the amount of energy transmitted per second over an area of one square
meter (Speaks text). For our purposes, the intensity of the pure tone is the loudness of the
tone. Again, as with “frequency vs. pitch” there is a difference between the objective
“intensity” and subjective “loudness,” but in terms of understanding the process of pure tone
audiometry, it is acceptable to think of intensity as synonymous with loudness.

Sound intensity is measured in decibels (dB). There are several dB scales used for different
applications; most common in audiometry are the dB HL (hearing level) scale, the dB SPL
(sound pressure level) scale, and the dB SL (sensation level) scale. By far the most common
dB scale used in audiology, and the standard scale used on a pure tone audiogram, is the dB
HL scale. This scale is referenced to the average hearing of young adults. “0 dB HL” means
the average threshold of audibility of these young, normally hearing adults. This is different
than “0 dB SPL”, which means that no sound pressure is present. Sounds at very low pressure
levels are inaudible to human ears; thus, for example, a 5 dB SPL sound would be inaudible
to even the most acute human hearing, while a 5 dB HL sound would be audible, though very
soft, to a person with very good hearing. In general, 0 dB HL is equal to about 10 to 15 dB
SPL; this varies across different frequencies. Finally, the dB SL scale is referenced to an
individual’s threshold of audibility for the signal in question. If a person’s threshold for a
1000 Hz pure tone is 20 dB HL and a 1000 Hz tone of 60 dB HL is presented, that tone is
termed as 40 dB SL, as it is 40 dB louder than the individual’s threshold. The dB SL scale is
infrequently used for pure tone audiometry but is somewhat more common in speech
audiometry.

The use of different dB scales can obviously lead to some confusion. There are in fact
additional dB scales not described above; the others have acoustical engineering applications
and are unlikely to be used or referenced for audiometric testing. It is important to always
note which dB scale is being used (i.e. HL, SL, SPL). Again, the most common scale used in
audiometric testing is the dB HL scale, and it is this scale which is represented on the
standard pure tone audiogram. Those trained to measure signals in dB are generally very
careful to specify which dB scale they are referencing. If, in a narrative report, the dB scale is
not specified, the information should be viewed cautiously.

Air conduction audiometry

An air conducted signal is defined as a sound wave traveling through air; this is the means by
which humans typically hear most sounds. Air conduction audiometric thresholds are
reflective of a person’s hearing for air conducted sounds; that is, most of what we hear on a
daily basis. This mode of signal presentation assesses the entire auditory system: the outer
ear, ear canal, tympanic membrane, middle ear system, cochlea, auditory nerve, auditory
brainstem, and auditory cortex. A deficit in one or more of these areas may result in a
measurable hearing loss when testing via air conduction. Thus, when a hearing loss is
measured during air conduction testing, further tests become necessary to determine which
part(s) of the auditory system are dysfunctional.

The general procedure for air conduction pure tone audiometry is as follows:

The patient is instructed to listen carefully for a beeping sound (pure tone) and when
he or she hears a sound, even if it is very soft, to raise his or her hand (in some test
settings the patient is given a button to push in lieu of hand raising). The earphones
are placed on the ears and checked for secure and proper fit. The audiologist then
begins to present pure tones of one frequency to the patient, initially at an intensity
level that it is assumed they can hear quite well. After the patient demonstrates a
good understanding of the task, the intensity (loudness) of the tone is decreased in
10 to 15 dB steps and the tone is presented again. This is continued, with tones being
presented for one to two seconds, until the patient no longer responds. The intensity
is then raised in 5 dB steps until the patient responds, decreased again and increased
again in 5 dB steps until the patient responds. Thus, the patient will have responded
three times at this lowest audible intensity: once while the intensity was being
decreased, twice while it was being increased. This lowest audible intensity is
defined as the patient’s threshold for the particular frequency and is marked as such
on the audiogram (see “audiometric symbols”). This method is described as the
“modified Hughson-Westlake ascending descending paradigm” (). This routine is
repeated for all test frequencies in one ear, then again in the other ear. This
procedure will establish an air conduction pure tone threshold curve for each ear. If
there is any degree of hearing loss measured at any frequency in either ear, bone
conduction pure tone testing must be performed. In some cases, based on signs or
symptoms, bone conduction testing will be performed even with normal air
conduction thresholds.

Bone conduction audiometry

Bone conduction pure tone testing stimulates the cochlea directly, bypassing the outer and
middle ear. This type of testing is used to determine whether a hearing loss measured via air
conduction is reflective of a cochlear/neural deficit or an outer or middle ear dysfunction.
Ideally, an outer ear problem would be visualized using otoscopy, so bone conduction is
primarily used to distinguish between middle ear- and inner ear to related hearing losses. If
bone conduction pure tone thresholds agree with air conduction thresholds, the loss is
determined to be related to the cochlea or higher neural processes and is termed
“sensorineural.” If, on the other hand, bone conduction thresholds are better than air
conduction thresholds, a conductive component is present: the cochlea, when stimulated
directly, responds at lower intensities (i.e.“better”) than when it is stimulated via the outer
and middle ear, meaning something in the outer or middle ear is reducing the sound intensity
that is reaching the cochlea. A difference between air conduction and bone conduction
thresholds is referred to as an “air-bone gap.” If bone conduction thresholds are normal in the
presence of abnormal air conduction thresholds, this is termed a “conductive” hearing loss. If
bone conduction thresholds indicate a hearing loss but one which is less severe than is
indicated by air conduction thresholds, the loss is termed a “mixed” hearing loss: there is both
a sensorineural component and a conductive component to a mixed hearing loss.
Bone conduction pure tone audiometry is performed using the same modified
HughsonWestlake method as in air conduction audiometry but the tones are presented via a
bone conduction headset. This is comprised of a bone oscillator affixed to a metal band which
can be worn over the head in a similar fashion as standard headphones. The bone oscillator is
typically placed on the mastoid process or, in some cases, in the middle of the forehead.

Because sound waves are propagated much more quickly and efficiently through a solid
(such as bone) than through a gas (such as air), the presentation of a bone-conducted signal to
any point on the head will stimulate the ear in which cochlear hearing is better. Thus, if the
bone oscillator is placed on the left mastoid but the patient has better cochlear hearing in the
right ear, the signal will be heard in the right ear. This phenomenon is termed “crossover” or,
conversely, there is no “inter-aural attenuation.” If bone conduction testing is to be performed
and there is a significant difference in hearing between the ears, it is necessary to use a
masking noise in the non-test ear

PURE TONE AUDIOGRAM

An audiogram is a graphic representation of an individual’s hearing. Frequency, measured in

Hertz (Hz), is plotted on the abscissa, generally from 250 Hz (0.25 kHz) up to 8000 Hz (8
kHz). The audiogram will represent each frequency octave starting at 250 Hz. An octave is a
doubling of frequency, so the standard audiogram will include 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1000 Hz,
2000 Hz, 4000 Hz, and 8000 Hz. In many cases, especially when a large difference is
measured between two octave frequencies, the inter-octaves will also be tested, including 750
Hz, 1500 Hz, 3000 Hz, and 6000 Hz.
On the ordinate of the audiogram is the intensity level, plotted in decibels hearing level (dB
HL). Audiograms generally are arranged with lower intensities represented at the top and
higher intensities represented at the bottom, increasing in 5 dB steps. Audiograms usually
represent a range from -10 dB HL to 100 or 120 dB HL. Normal hearing is considered to be
20 dB HL or better, mild hearing loss from 20 to 40 dB HL, moderate hearing loss from 40 to
60 dB HL, severe hearing loss from 60 to 80 dB HL, and profound hearing loss at 80 dB HL
or worse. Very often an individual’s threshold curve will transcend two or more of these
intensity regions and would be termed, for example, a “mild to severe (sensorineural,
conductive, or mixed) hearing loss.”

Audiometric Symbols See Figure 1 (need to find a “figure 1,” probably a YHB
audiogram scanned)

When a pure tone threshold is determined, the threshold is recorded on the audiogram using a
variety of symbols. These symbols are generally universal, but most audiograms have a key
or legend which should be referenced if there is any confusion. The symbol is placed on the
audiogram coordinate (frequency and intensity) which corresponds with the measured
threshold.

Unmasked air conduction thresholds are represented as an “O” for the right ear and an “X”
for the left ear.
Figure 1: This is an audiogram with some familiar environmental sounds pictured. A clinical audiogram
would not have the cartoons but would have similar representation of frequency (in HZ) and intensity (in
dB).
Masked air conduction thresholds are represented as a triangle for the right ear and a square
for the left ear.
Unmasked bone conduction thresholds are represented as a “” for the left ear.

Masked bone conduction thresholds are represented as a “[“ for the right ear and a “]” for the
left ear.

If no threshold can be obtained at the limits of the audiometer (90 to 120 dB HL, depending
upon the stimulus frequency and the transducer) for a particular test frequency (as in the case
of profound hearing loss at that frequency), the above symbols are used with an arrow
pointing downwards from the symbol.

A threshold obtained in soundfield is represented by an “S”; this is not an ear-specific

finding, as outlined above.
Advantages:
i. The simplest type of auditory stimulus.
ii. It can be specified accurately in terms of frequency and intensity.
iii. High degree of precision.
iv. Wide frequency range compared to speech tests
v. Changes in threshold sensitivity can be monitored more accurately
with puretone than speech tests.

2 .Speech Audiometer

The objective of the speech audiometry is to assess the integrity of the entire auditory system
by evaluating the hearing ability. Neural type of hearing loss can be identified with the help
of speech audiometry. Speech audiometric test is further categorized into speech
discrimination test and speech reception threshold test.
What is Speech Audiometry? It is the measurement of the acuity of hearing through
generation of tones of known frequencies and amplitudes. Speech audiometry has become a
fundamental tool in hearing-loss assessment. In conjunction with pure-tone audiometry, it can
aid in determining the degree and type of hearing loss.

In the Pure Tone Audiometry (PTA) test, the pure tone audiogram provides only a partial
picture of the patient’s auditory status because it does not give any direct information
about his ability to hear and understand speech. Speech Audiometry is used to find out how a
patient hears speech involves testing him with speech stimuli.

Purpose:
i. Important before prescribing hearing-aids
ii. Determining the deterioration of speech understanding of patients
(frequency range 300 – 3000 Hz).
iii. Evaluate the performance of hearing aids.

Importance of Speech Audiometry:

1. Using speech audiometry, audiologists set out to answer questions regarding patient’s:
i. Degree of hearing loss for speech.
ii. The levels required for their most comfortable and uncomfortable loudness
levels
iii. Their range of comfortable loudness
iv. Their ability to recognize and discriminate the sounds of speech
 2. Speech-language pathologists use reported findings of speech audiometric results in
both therapy planning and client and family counselling.
3. Reliability and validity of speech stimulus is better than non-speech stimulus like pure
tone or warble tone. Thus, speech audiometry ensures more reliability and validity.
4. Speech audiometry is a very quick process when compared with other Hearing tests
like PTA.
5. PTA doesn’t talk about the communication ability of the person. Though speech
audiometry checks one’s hearing sensitivity, language comprehensive capacity,
communication ability.

Purpose of Speech Audiometry:

The basic purpose of Speech Audiometry test is:
i. To measure the patient’s ability to recognize speech stimuli
ii. To validate the Pure Tone Audiometry (PTA) results
iii. To compliment differential diagnosis (retro-cochlear pathology)
iv. It is difficult to evaluate HL in population with neurological disorder (like stroke,
dysarthria) or with non-organic hearing loss using PTA, so in those cases speech
audiometry compliments better differential diagnosis.
v. The purpose is also to give a reasonable estimate in planning rehabilitation, especially
in Hearing Aid (HA) evaluations.
vi. Results suggest that the 2 types of stimuli were processed differently when measured
behaviourally, with Mismatch Negativity Response (MMN), or Phonetic level
evaluation (P300). The better discrimination and clearer neurophysiological
representation of the frequency glide is provided by speech audiometer