Chap 1: Complex Numbers & Complex Functions

1. Complex Numbers
- A complex number z is an ordered pair of real number (x, y):
𝐳 = 𝐱 + 𝐣𝐲
{
𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐱 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 = 𝐑𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭 + 𝐣(𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭)
• The real part: Re(z) = x
• The imaginary part: Im(z) = y
Definition
• The imaginary unit: 𝐣, where 𝐣𝟐 = −𝟏
• If x = 0 ⇒ z = yj is said to be purely imaginary
• If y = 0 ⇒ z = x is said to be purely real
Re(2 + j√3) = 2 Im(2 + j√3) = √3
Re(−j4) = 0 Im(−j4) = −4
- The modulus of a complex number z is: |𝐳| = √𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐲 𝟐

Modulus &
- The conjugate number of a complex number z is: 𝐳̅ = 𝐱 − 𝐲𝐣
Conjugate - Properties of conjugate number:
Numbers ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐳 ± 𝐰 = 𝐳̅ ± 𝐰̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐳 ×÷ 𝐰 = 𝐳̅ ×÷ 𝐰 ̅
̅̅̅
𝐳 𝐧 = 𝐳̅ 𝐧
𝐱𝟏 = 𝐱𝟐
- “=”: 𝐳𝟏 = 𝐳𝟐 ⇔ { 𝐲 = 𝐲
𝟏 𝟐

𝐳𝟏 + 𝐳𝟐 = (𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐱 𝟐 ) + (𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟐 )𝐣
- “±”:
𝐳𝟏 − 𝐳𝟐 = (𝐱 𝟏 − 𝐱 𝟐 ) + (𝐲𝟏 − 𝐲𝟐 )𝐣
- “×”: communicative and distributive laws
𝐳𝟏 × 𝐳𝟐 = (𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐲𝟏 𝐣)(𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐲𝟐 𝐣) = 𝐱 𝟏 𝐱 𝟐 − 𝐲𝟏 𝐲𝟐 + (𝐱 𝟏 𝐲𝟐 + 𝐲𝟏 𝐱 𝟐 )𝐣
• When 𝐳 × 𝐳̅ = (𝐱 + 𝐲𝐣)(𝐱 − 𝐲𝐣) = 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐲 𝟐 = |𝐳|𝟐

Arithmetical
Operations - “÷”:
• Division of a complex number by a real number
𝐳 𝐱 + 𝐲𝐣 𝐱 𝐲
= = + 𝐣
𝐜 𝐜 𝐜 𝐜
• Division of 2 complex numbers
𝐳𝟏 x1 + y1 j (x1 + y1 j)(x2 − y2 j) (𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐲𝟏 𝐣)(𝐱 𝟐 − 𝐲𝟐 𝐣)
= = =
𝐳𝟐 x2 + y2 j (x2 + y2 j)(x2 − y2 j) 𝐱 𝟐𝟐 + 𝐲𝟐𝟐
𝐳𝟏 z1 z̅2 𝐳𝟏 ̅̅̅
𝐳𝟐
= =
𝐳𝟐 z2 z̅2 |𝐳𝟐 |𝟐
- We have:
𝐱 ≤ |𝐱| ≤ √𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐲 𝟐 𝐑𝐞(𝐳) ≤ |𝐑𝐞(𝐳)| ≤ |𝐳|
{ ⇒ {
𝐲 ≤ |𝐲| ≤ √𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐲𝟐 𝐈𝐦(𝐳) ≤ |𝐈𝐦(𝐳)| ≤ |𝐳|
Triangle
Inequality
- If z1 = x1 + y1 j and z2 = x2 + y2 j, then we have:
|𝐳 + 𝐳𝟐 | ≥ |𝐳𝟏 | − |𝐳𝟐 |
[ 𝟏
|𝐳𝟏 + 𝐳𝟐 | ≤ |𝐳𝟏 | + |𝐳𝟐 |
2. Polar Form – Exponential Form of Complex Numbers
a. Polar Form
- If z = x + yj, then the geometrical representation of a complex number as a point in the plane is: 𝐳 =
(𝐱, 𝐲)

Complex Plane

- The horizontal x-axis is the real-axis

- The vertical y-axis is the imaginary-axis
- The conjugate number z̅ is the reflection of z across the real-axis
- The length of the vector z is: |z|
- The distance between z1 & z2 is: |z1 − z2 | = √(x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2
z = 3 + 2j & z̅ = 3 − 2j z = −1 + 4j z − 3j

Example

- We can present the complex point z = (x, y) by polar coordinates z = (r, θ):
𝐱 = 𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐲 = 𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
𝐫 = |𝐳| = √𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐲 𝟐 ⇒ 𝐳 = 𝐫(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 + 𝐣 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉)
Polar Form 𝐛
{𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉 = 𝐚
- The argument of z is: θ = arg (z)
- The principle value of arg (z) is: −𝛑 ≤ 𝐀𝐫𝐠(𝐳) ≤ 𝛑
Change z = 1 + j → polar form?
1 π
- r = √1 + 1 = √2 and tan θ = = 1 ⇒ θ =
1 4
π π
- So, z = √2 (cos + j sin )
4 4
Example
Change z = −√3 + j → polar form?
1 −π 5π
- r = √3 + 1 = 2 and tan θ =
−√3
⇒θ=
6
(or θ =
6
)
5π 5π
- So, z = 2 (cos
6
+ j sin
6
)
- “×”: 𝐳𝟏 × 𝐳𝟐 = |𝐳𝟏 | × |𝐳𝟐 |[𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛉𝟏 + 𝛉𝟐 ) + 𝐣 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉𝟏 + 𝛉𝟐 )]
𝐳𝟏 𝟏 |𝐳 |
- “÷”: 𝐳 = |𝐳 | [𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛉𝟏 − 𝛉𝟐 ) + 𝐣 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛉𝟏 − 𝛉𝟐 )]
𝟐 𝟐
(𝐳𝟐 ≠ 𝟎)
Operations

- Engineers’ j-operator: if z = r(cos θ + j sin θ), then:

𝛑 𝛑
𝐣𝐳 = 𝐫 [𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝛉 + ) + 𝐣 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛉 + )]
𝟐 𝟐
Find the product of z1 = 1 + √3j and z2 = −1 − j in polar form?
π π 3π 3π
- z1 = 2 (cos + j sin ) and z2 = √2 (cos
3 3 4
+ j sin
4
)
Example 13π 13π
- z1 × z2 = 2√2 (cos
12
+ j sin
12
)
 π π 3π 3π
Find the division of z1 = 4 (cos + j sin ) and z2 = 5 (cos + j sin )?
4 4 4 4
z1 4 −π −π
= (cos + j sin )
z2 5 2 2
z2 5 π π
= (cos + j sin )
z1 4 2 2

b. Exponential Form
- The complex exponential function of z = x + jy is:
𝐞𝐳 = 𝐞𝐱+𝐣𝐲 = 𝐞𝐱 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐲 + 𝐣 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐲)
where 𝐞𝐣𝐲 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐲 + 𝐣 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐲

- The polar form of z can be written in (Euler Formula) exponential form:

Exponential
𝐳 = 𝐫𝐞𝐣𝛉 (θ must be in radian)
Form
where 𝐞𝐣𝛉 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 + 𝐣 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉

- Some properties of exponential form:

z1 r1 j(θ +θ ) 1 1 −jθ
z1 z2 = r1 r2 ej(θ1+θ2) = e 1 2 = e (z ≠ 0) z n = r n enjθ
z2 r2 z r
3πj
Change e 4 → rectangular form?
3π 3π 3π −√2 √2
ej 4 = cos + j sin = +j
4 4 2 2

3πj
Change e2+ 2 → rectangular form?
2+
3πj 3π 3π 3π
e 2 = e2 ej 2 = e2 (cos + j sin ) = −je2 = −j7.389
2 2
Example
Change e1+2j → rectangular form?
e1+2j = e1 e2j = e1 (cos 2 + j sin 2) = −1.13120 + j2.47172

Change z = 1 + j → exponential form?

1 π
- We have: r = √1 + 1 = √2 and tan θ = = 1 ⇒ θ =
1 4
π π
- The polar form is: z = √2 (cos + j sin )
4 4
π
j
- The exponential form is: z = √2e 4

3. Power – Root of Complex Numbers

a. Power of Complex Numbers
Power of
Complex
- (De Moivre’s theorem) If n is a positive integer, then:
Numbers 𝐳 𝐧 = [𝐫(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 + 𝐣 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉) ]𝐧 = 𝐫 𝐧 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐧𝛉 + 𝐣 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐧𝛉)
Express z 5 = (1 + j)5 → rectangular form?
π π 5π 5π
z = (1 + j) = √2 (cos + j sin ) ⇒ z 5 = 4√2 (cos + j sin )
4 4 4 4
⇒ z 5 = −4 − 4j
Example
Express z10 = (1 + j)10 → rectangular form?
π π 5π 5π
z = (1 + j) = √2 (cos + j sin ) ⇒ z10 = 32 (cos + j sin )
4 4 2 2
⇒ z10 = 32j
b. Root of Complex Numbers
- If is a positive integer, then n√z has n distinct values:
𝐧 𝐧 𝛉 + 𝟐𝐤𝛑 𝛉 + 𝟐𝐤𝛑
Root of 𝐰𝐤 = √𝐳 = √𝐫 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 + 𝐣 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ) with k = 0,1,2, … , n − 1
𝐧 𝐧
Complex
Numbers - The principal nth root of z:
𝐧 𝛉 𝛉
𝐰 = √𝐫 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 + 𝐣 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ) with k = 0
𝐧 𝐧
Find the roots of √−j?
−π −π
- z = −j ⇒ z = cos
2
+ j sin
2
−π −π
cos + j sin
4 4
- Therefore, w = ±√z = [ −π −π
− (cos + j sin )
4 4
−π −π −π −π
cos + j sin cos + j sin
4 4 4 4
=[ −π π −π π = [ 3π 3π
cos ( + ) + j sin ( + ) cos + j sin
4 2 4 2 4 4
−π −π
+0 +0 −π −π
cos ( 2 ) + j sin ( 2 ) cos + j sin
2 2 2 4 4
- Another way, w = √z = [ −π −π =[ 3π 3π
+2π +2π cos + j sin
2 2
Example cos ( ) + j sin ( ) 4 4
2 2

4
Find the roots of √−1?
- z = −1 ⇒ z = cos π + j sin π
- Therefore:
π+0 π+0 π π √2 √2
cos ( ) + j sin ( ) cos + j sin +j
4 4 4 4 2 2
π + 2π π + 2π 3π 3π −√2 √2
cos ( ) + j sin ( ) cos + j sin +j
4 4 4 4 4 2 2
w = √z = = 5π 5π = −√2
π + 4π π + 4π √2
cos ( ) + j sin ( ) cos + j sin −j
4 4 4 4 2 2
π + 6π π + 6π 7π 7π
cos ( ) + j sin ( ) cos + j sin √2 √2
[ [
4 4 4 4 [ 2 −j 2

4. Complex Function
- A complex function 𝑓 defined on a domain D is a rule that assigns a complex number w to every z
𝐰 = 𝒇(𝐳) = 𝐮 + 𝐣𝐯 = 𝐮(𝐱, 𝐲) + 𝐣𝐯(𝐱, 𝐲)
u is the real part
where { both depend on z
Definition v is the imaginary part
• z is the complex variable z = x + jy
• w is the value of 𝑓(z)
• D is the domain
Let w = 𝑓(z) = z 2 + 3z at z = 1 + 3j. Find u(x, y) and v(x, y) ?
- We know that z = x + jy, so:
w = 𝑓(z) = (x + jy)2 + 3(x + jy) = x 2 + 2xyj − y 2 + 3x + 3yj
= x 2 − y 2 + 3x + j(3y + 2xy)
- We can find:
u = Re(w) = x 2 − y 2 + 3x
v = Im(w) = 3y + 2xy
Example
- Therefore,
u = Re(w) = −5
w = 𝑓(1 + 3j) = −5j + 15 ⇒ {
v = Im(w) = 15

1
Let w = 𝑓(z) = 2jz + 6z̅ at z = + 4j. Find u(x, y) and v(x, y) ?
2
- We have:
w = 𝑓(z) = 2j(x + jy) + 6(x − jy) = 2jx + 2j2 y + 6x − 6jy
 = 6x − 2y + j(2x − 6y)
- So:
1
w = 𝑓 ( + 4j) = −5 − j23
2
- We can find:
u = Re(w) = −5
v = Im(w) = −23
- The limit of 𝑓(z) = u(x, y) + jv(x, y) is:
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐮(𝐱, 𝐲) = 𝐮𝟎
(𝐱,𝐲)→(𝐱𝟎 ,𝐲𝟎 )
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝐳) = 𝐰𝟎 ⇔ {
𝐳→𝐳𝟎 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐯(𝐱, 𝐲) = 𝐯𝟎
(𝐱,𝐲)→(𝐱𝟎 ,𝐲𝟎 )

- Properties of 2 limits:
Limit and lim [𝑓(z) ± g(z)] = A ± B
z→z0
Continuity lim 𝑓(z) = A
{
z→z0 lim [𝑓(z) × g(z)] = A × B
⇒ z→z
lim g(z) = B 0
z→z0 𝑓(z) A
lim [ ] = (B ≠ 0)
[z→z0 g(z) B

- A function 𝑓 is continuous at z0 if: 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝐳) = 𝒇(𝐳𝟎 )

𝐳→𝐳𝟎
- If 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous at all points of its domain ⇒ 𝑓 is a continuous function
- The derivative of 𝑓(z) at z0 is defined by
′ (𝐳 )
𝒇(𝐳𝟎 + ∆𝐳) − 𝒇(𝐳𝟎 )
{𝒇 𝟎 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝐳→𝟎 ∆𝐳
∆𝐳 = 𝐳 − 𝐳𝟎
then 𝑓 is said to be differentiable at z0
Derivative
- The differentiation rules are the same as in real calculus
- The same chain rule as in real calculus
- The same rules for 2 analytic function:
𝒇 ′ 𝒇′ 𝒈 + 𝒈′𝒇
(𝐜𝒇)′ ′
= 𝐜(𝒇)′ (𝒇 + 𝒈) = 𝒇 + 𝒈′ ′
(𝒇𝒈)′ ′
= 𝒇 𝒈 + 𝒈′𝒇 ( ) =
𝒈 𝒈𝟐
d 3
(z + j)2 = 2(z 3 + j) ∙ 3z 2 = 6z 2 (z 3 + j)
dz
Example
d j 0 − 2(1 − z) ∙ (−1)j
2
= = 2j(1 − z)−3
dz (1 − z) (1 − z)4

5. Cauchy-Riemann Equation – Laplace Equation

- The Cauchy- Riemann equations in rectangular:
𝐮𝐱 (𝐱, 𝐲) = 𝐯𝐲 (𝐱, 𝐲)
{
𝐮𝐲 (𝐱, 𝐲) = −𝐯𝐱 (𝐱, 𝐲)
- The Cauchy- Riemann equations in polar form:
𝟏
𝐮𝐫 (𝐫, 𝛉) = 𝐯𝛉 (𝐫, 𝛉)
{ 𝐫
𝟏
Cauchy- 𝐯𝐫 (𝐫, 𝛉) = − 𝐮𝛉 (𝐫, 𝛉)
Riemann 𝐫
Equation
The application of Cauchy-Riemann Equation
- If:
• The partial derivatives ux , vx , uy , vy exist and continue in the domain D
• The Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied
- Then:
• 𝑓 is differentiable at z0 and 𝒇′ (𝐳) = 𝐮𝐱 (𝐱, 𝐲) + 𝐣𝐯𝐱 (𝐱, 𝐲) = 𝐯𝐲 (𝐱, 𝐲) − 𝐣𝐮𝐲 (𝐱, 𝐲)
• 𝑓 is an analytic function
 ▪ Polynomial is analytic everywhere
▪ Rational functions are analytic on their domains
▪ In a region 0 < z − z0 < r, an isolated singularity 𝐳𝟎 is where 𝑓 isn’t analytic
Show that 𝑓(z) = z 3 is differentiable. Find 𝑓′(z)?
- 𝑓(z) = (x + jy)3 = x3 + 3x2 yj − 3xy 2 − y 3 j = x3 − 3xy 2 + j(3x2 y − y 3 )
- The partial derivatives:
ux = vy = 3x 2 − 3y 2 (exist and continuous everywhere)
uy = −vx = −6xy (exist and continuous everywhere)
- Therefore 𝑓(z) is differentiable
𝑓 ′ (z) = ux (x, y) + jvx (x , y) = 3x 2 − 3y 2 + j6xy

Show that 𝑓(z) = ez = ex (cos y + j sin y) is differentiable. Find 𝑓′(z)?

- The partial derivatives:
ux = vy = ex cos y (exist and continuous everywhere)
uy = −vx = −ex sin y (exist and continuous everywhere)
Example
- Therefore 𝑓(z) is differentiable
𝑓 ′ (z) = ux (x, y) + jvx (x , y) = ex cos y + jex sin y = 𝑓(z)
Show that 𝑓(z) = ez = ex (cos y + j sin y) is an analytic function?
- The partial derivatives:
ux = vy = ex cos y (exist and continuous everywhere)
uy = −vx = −ex sin y (exist and continuous everywhere)
- Therefore 𝑓(z) is analytic for all z

1
Show that 𝑓(z) = (z−1)(z−2) is an analytic function?
z≠1
- 𝑓(z) exists when {
z≠2
- Since 𝑓(z) is a rational function. Therefore 𝑓(z) is analytic for all z excepts z = {1,2}
- If 𝑓(z) = u(x, y) + jv(x, y) is analytic in domain D, then both u(x, y) and v(x, y) satisfy the Laplace
equations:
𝛁 𝟐 𝐮 = 𝐮𝐱𝐱 + 𝐮𝐲𝐲 = 𝟎
[ 𝟐
Laplace 𝛁 𝐯 = 𝐯𝐱𝐱 + 𝐯𝐲𝐲 = 𝟎
Equation 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐮𝐱𝐱 = 𝐯𝐲𝐱 𝐮𝐲𝐲 = −𝐯𝐱𝐲
- If 𝑓(z) = u(x, y) + jv(x, y) satisfy the Laplace equation & Cauchy-Riemann equation:
• u(x, y) and v(x, y) are harmonic in D
• v(x, y) is harmonic conjugate function of u(x, y) in D
Show that u(x, y) = −y 2 + x 2 − y is harmonic. Find the harmonic conjugate function?
- We have:
ux = 2x uy = −2y − 1
uxx = 2 uyy = −2
- Apply the Laplace Equation:
∇2 u = uxx + uyy = 2 − 2 = 0
- Therefore, u(x, y) is a harmonic function
- Apply the Cauchy-Riemann Equation:
ux = vy ⇒ vy = 2x
Example uy = −vx ⇒ vx = 2y + 1 (1)
- Integrating vy with respect to y we have:
v(x, y) = ∫ vy (x, y)dy = ∫ 2xdy = 2xy + h(x)

- Differentiating vy with respect to x we have:

vx = 2y + h′ (x) (2)
- From (1) and (2):
h′ (x) = 1 ⇒ h(x) = x + c
- Therefore:
v(x, y) = 2xy + x + c
6. Elementary Complex Functions
- The exponential function: 𝐞𝐳 = 𝐞𝐱+𝐣𝐲 = 𝐞𝐱 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐲 + 𝐣 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐲)
- Property:
1. |𝐞𝐳 | = 𝐞𝐱 & 𝐚𝐫𝐠(𝐞𝐳 ) = 𝐲
Exponential
2. ez is analytic everywhere and (𝐞𝐳 )′ = 𝐞𝐳
Functions
3. The periodic properties:
𝐞𝐳 = 𝐞𝐳+𝐣𝟐𝐤𝛑 ⇒ ez1 = ez2 ⇔ z1 = z2 + j2kπ
𝛑 −𝛑 −𝛑𝐣
𝐞𝐣𝟐𝛑 = 𝟏 𝐞𝟐𝐣 = 𝐣 𝐞𝛑𝐣 = −𝟏 𝐞 𝟐 𝐣 = −𝐣 𝐞 = −𝟏
" × ": ez1 ez2 = ex1+x2 [cos(y1 + y2 ) + j sin(y1 + y2 )]
e z1
" ÷ ": = ex1−x2 [cos(y1 − y2 ) + j sin(y1 − y2 )]
e z2
Operation
- With positive number:
(ez )m = emz
1 1
(ez )m = em(z+2jkπ)
Let ez = −1 → z?
Example - We have: eπj = −1
- Therefore, ez = eπj ⇔ z = jπ + j2kπ = jπ(2k + 1)
- If z = x + jy then we have the trigonometric function of z
𝐞𝐣𝐳 + 𝐞−𝐣𝐳 𝐞𝐣𝐳 − 𝐞−𝐣𝐳
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐳 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐳 =
Trigonometric & 𝟐 𝟐𝐣
Hyperbolic - Furthermore, we have:
Functions 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐳 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐳
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐳 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝐳 =
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐳
𝟏 𝟏
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝐳 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝐳 =
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐳