8.
1 Xylem and Phloem
Plant Transport Systems
• Plants need to obtain substances from their environment such as water, carbon
dioxide, and mineral ions, and they also need to transport substances made
during photosynthesis such as sugar and food.
• Plants have two main transport systems: Xylem and Phloem.
o Xylem transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the leaves.
o Phloem transports substances made by the plant, mainly sugar and
amino acids, from the leaves to the rest of the plant.
• Xylem and phloem tubes are usually found close together in structures called
vascular bundles.
Vascular Bundles
• A vascular bundle is a group of xylem vessels and phloem tubes found
together.
• Position in the plant:
o In the root, vascular bundles are found in the center.
o In the stem, vascular bundles are arranged in a ring near the outside
edge.
o In leaves, they are spread throughout and help support the leaf
structure.
Xylem Vessels: Structure and Function
Xylem is a plant tissue made up of dead, empty cells joined together, forming long
hollow tubes.
Feature Explanation
Walls contain lignin. Lignin is very strong and provides support to hold
the plant upright and support the weight of leaves.
In leaves, it helps hold it flat to absorb sunlight.
Cells are dead with no Water can flow easily through the tube
contents.
No cross walls between dead Forms a continuous tube for water to flow through
cells. all the way from the roots to the leaves.
Diameter is between fifteen This size helps maintain a continuous flow of water
micrometers and two and allows enough water to flow through.
hundred micrometers.
8.2: Transportation of water in plants
Steps:
1. Water moves by Osmosis from a high concentration area to a low
concentration area.
2. Root hair absorbs water from the Soil, then to the Epidermis, then to
the Cortex, then to the Xylem.
3. Xylem absorbs water to stem and then to the leaves.
4. Water are kept together by attraction force.
5. Water moves upward by Transpiration Pull, where water vapour moves
from mesophyll cells, then to the Stomata, until they exit the leaves. This will
pull the water upwards.
Factors Affecting Rate of Transpiration
1. Higher Temperature = faster water
2. Higher Sunlight = faster water
3. Higher Wind = faster water
4. Higher Humidity = slower water
Wilting
If more water leaves the plant than water entering, the plant has wilting and dies.
8.3: Translocation of Sugar in plants
1. During Summer (Growing Season)
1. Plants use carbohydrates and transform them into Sucrose.
2. Then phloem translocates the Sucrose to the Flowers and Leaves.
3. The Sucrose will be stored as fructose in the flowers.
4. The Sucrose will be stored as Starch in the Roots.
Note:
• The Source of Sucrose is leaves.
• The Sink are Flowers & Roots.
2. During Winter (Dormant Season)
1. Plants transform fructose stored in flowers to Sucrose and sends it
to leaves using phloem.
2. Plants transform Starch stored in Roots to Sucrose and sends it
to leaves using Phloem.
Note:
• The Sources of Sucrose in winter are roots and flowers.
• The Sink is leaves.
9.1: Introduction to circulatory system
Blood Flow and Color
• The left side of the heart has blood that contains a high amount of oxygen
and it is bright in color. This blood is transported to the body.
• The right side of the heart has blood that contains a high amount of carbon
dioxide and a low amount of oxygen. It is dark in color, and this blood is
returned from the body to the heart.
Types of Circulatory Systems
1. Single Circulatory System
o Definition: Blood returns to the heart one time for each complete circuit.
o Found in: Fish.
o Circuit: Heart → Body and Lungs or Gills → Heart
2. Double Circulatory System
o Definition: Blood returns to the heart two times for each complete circuit.
o Found in: Humans and other animals.
o Circuit 1 (Pulmonary Circuit): Heart → Lungs → Heart
o Circuit 2 (Systemic Circuit): Heart → Body → Heart
Note: Double circulation is more efficient because the blood is pumped twice. This
increases the blood pressure and allows the blood to move faster through the body.
9.2: The heart
Heart Anatomy and Function
The heart has four chambers and several key structures:
1. Right Atria: Collects deoxygenated blood from the body.
2. Left Atria: Collects oxygenated blood from the lungs.
3. Right Ventricles: Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
4. Left Ventricles: Pumps oxygenated blood to the body.
5. Septum: A muscle wall to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
6. Valves: One-way doors to prevent the blood from going back into the heart
chambers.
7. Left Ventricles is the thickest because it pumps blood to the body requiring the
highest pressure.
Coronary Arteries and Heart Health
• Coronary arteries cover the heart to provide it with enough Oxygen.
• Eating too much fats and oils can make them thinner and reduce the blood
and oxygen supply to the heart.
• If fats are stuck, the coronary arteries will be blocked, and a heart attack will
happen because there is no enough oxygen reaching the heart muscle.
How to prevent heart attack:
• Drinking water
• Eating healthy
• No smoking
• Sleeping well
• Exercising
How the Heart Beats (The Cardiac Cycle)
1. When it's relaxed, blood moves from veins to Atria.
2. The Atria will contract to pump blood to the Ventricles.
3. The Ventricles will contract to pump blood to the body (Left Ventricle)
and lungs (Right Ventricle).
4. Valves will close to prevent blood from going back to the heart chambers.
Checking Heartbeat
1. ECG (Electrocardiogram): Shows a graph of the heart's electrical
activity/beat.
2. Checking pulse by hands: Feeling the expansion and contraction of an artery.
9.3: Blood vessels
Feature Artery Capillary Vein
Direction of Away from the heart Connects arteries Towards the heart
Flow and veins
Wall Thick, muscular, One cell thick Thin, less muscular
Thickness elastic
Pressure Very High Low Very Low
Valves None (except at heart None Present (to prevent
exit) backflow)
Main Transport blood under Exchange materials Transport blood under
Function high pressure with cells low pressure
9.4: Blood cells
Blood is a fluid that flows throughout the body. It has two main parts:
1. Plasma (Liquid Part)
• Description: Pale yellow liquid that transports materials.
• Transport Functions:
1. nutrients from the small intestine to all cells.
2. carbon dioxide from cells to the lungs.
3. waste from cells to the kidneys.
4. hormones from endocrine glands to where they are needed.
5. plasma proteins that flow throughout the body.
2. Blood Cells (Solid Part)
A. Red Blood Cells (RBCs)
• Name: Erythrocytes
• Function: Contain haemoglobin that binds to oxygen and transports oxygen to
all parts of the body.
• Structure:
o Biconcave shape to increase surface area.
o No nucleus to make more space for haemoglobin.
o Flexible to move through narrow blood vessels.
B. White Blood Cells (WBCs)
• Name: Leucocytes
• Function: Fight against harmful substances (pathogens).
• Structure: Larger than red blood cells and have a nucleus.
• Two Types:
1. Phagocytes: Wrap around and digest the pathogen.
2. Lymphocytes: Produce antibodies that bind to the pathogen.
C. Platelets
• Name: Thrombocytes
• Structure: Small, incomplete cells with no nucleus.
• Function: Responsible for blood clotting.
Blood Clotting Process
• When a blood vessel is cut, platelets break open and produce fibrinogen, a
plasma protein.
• Fibrinogen changes into fibrin, which is solid and insoluble.
• Fibrin forms a network over the wound and prevents blood loss.