MINERAL RESOURCES AND MINING IN AFRICA

Key words Learning outcomes

 Mineral After doing activities in this chapter,
 Mining you should be able to;
 Companies
 Capital intensive  What is a mineral?
 Open cast mining  Understand the use of mineral
 Drilling resources in the development of any
 Metallic minerals two industries in Uganda.
 Non-metallic  Recognize type and consequences
minerals of mining from photographs.
 Multinational  Appreciate positive and negative
companies contribution of mineral resources to
 Extracting. development.
 Understand why most mining is
capital intensive.
 Understand why much of the
mining in Africa is controlled by
overseas companies.
 Draw a map to show the major
mining areas of Africa.
 Draw diagrams to show the main
methods of mining.
 Appreciate the dangers that most
people may not benefit from mining
in the countries where it takes place.

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 A mineral or mineral species is a solid substance with a fairly
well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal
structure that occurs naturally in pure form.

 A mineral is a substance such as salt, tin or sulfur that is

formed naturally in rocks and in the earth.
 Minerals are usually solid, most of them have a crystalline
structure, minerals are either organic or inorganic.

 Organic / fossil minerals are minerals formed by a biological

process or those that contain the remains of plants and
animals e.g. coal and petroleum.

 Inorganic minerals are minerals whose chemical compounds

cannot easily be broken down e.g. diamonds.

 Mining refers to the extraction of metallic and non-metallic

mineral ores from the earth’s crust.

The extraction of minerals plays an important role in the

economic development of African countries because they
account for the large export / foreign earnings.

Africa is endowed with many mineral resources. These are of

different categories as shown below.

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UGANDA’S MINERAL RESOURCES
Uganda is rich in minerals. It has over 50 different types of
minerals.
It is ranked among the countries in Africa with the highest
number of mineral deposits.
Mining activities are concentrated in the north-East, the south
west and in the central regions of the country.

Mineral mined Location in Uganda

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MINERALS, TYPES OF INDUSTRY USED AND
PRODUCTS
Minerals are needed for many industrial production processes.
Minerals such as limestone and clay provide the raw materials
for cement manufacturing.
There are basically two industries that have developed in
Uganda as a result of mining include; the cement and steel
manufacturing industries.

Refer to book 4 Pg.6 (Active Geog)

METHODS OF MINING IN AFRICA

Method of Examples of minerals mined
mining

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Refer to book 4 Pg.9 (Active Geog)

1. Open cast method.

It involves the removal of the overburden/overlying rocks
lying above the mineral bearing rock. Sometimes blasting is
done to loosen the rock.
The extraction of ores is done in successive layers until the
mineral content becomes too small or the pit too deep.
This is the easiest and cheapest way of extracting mineral
close to the earth’s surface.
Minerals mined this way include:
- Coal
- Limestone
- Salt
- Iron ore
- At times Copper
Advantages

Disadvantages

2. Underground mining.

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 This is used where the mineral ores lie deep below the earth’s
surface with a very thick/overburden/overlying rock too thick
to be removed by mechanical shovels.
Underground mining falls under two categories:
(a) Adit mining: This is where horizontal or slightly
inclined tunnels are dug in the hill side to meet the mineral
bearing rock. Adit mining is used where the mineral occurs
in gently sloping veins on the side of the hill.
(b) Shaft mining: Where adit mining cannot effectively
reach the mineral, vertical shafts have to be used. The
vertical shafts may extend downwards for several
kilometers from the horizontal shafts to reach the mineral
bearing rock.
The tunnels are supported by timber and steel or concrete
beams to prevent rooftops from falling in and must be
ventilated and kept free from water seeping through.
Explosives may be used to loosen the mineral bearing rock.
The mineral ore is then transported by conveyor belts or
light railway and brought to the surface by light cages.
Minerals mined in this way include:
- Gold
- Uranium
- Copper
- Iron ore e.t.c.
Advantages

Disadvantages

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3. Placer mining/panning
This is a method of mining used where the mineral bearing
rock has been broken down by erosion, transported and
deposited by water e.g. particles of gold, tin or platinum may
occurs in some sand / gravel on the bays of some rivers.
In this case, the sand and gravel are dug out and mixed with
water in a shallow circular pan. It is then tilted/filtered in such
a way that the lighter sand is watched over the sight leaving
heavier materials at the bottom or at the top of the filters. It is
from this material that the mineral is extracted.
Advantages

Disadvantages

4. Drilling.
- Exploration/prospecting/survey is done
- Installing oil rigs/Derricks.
- Drilling into oil seams
- Installing pipes/pumps
- Pumping out crude oil

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- Transporting crude oil through pipes, fuel tankers/trucks to
refineries.
Advantages

Disadvantages

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MAJOR MINERALS AND COUNTRIES IN WHICH
THEY ARE FOUND IN AFRICA
- Copper in Zambia, D.R.C, Republic of South Africa,
Mauritania, Namibia.
- Iron ore in Liberia, Mauritania, South Africa, Niger,
Angola, Gabon, Swaziland, Sierra Leone, Senegal.
- Gold in South Africa, D.R.C, Angola, Botswana, Namibia,
Zimbabwe.
- Diamonds in South Africa, D.R.C.
- Petroleum oil in Libya, Algeria, Egypt, Nigeria,
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 - Uranium in D.R.C, South Africa, Central African
Republic.
- Tin in Nigeria (Jos plateau), Zambia, South Africa, and
DRC.
- Bauxite in Ghana, Cameroon, Sierra Leone.
- Cobalt in DRC, Zambia.

COPPER MINING IN AFRICA

 Africa commands an important position in the World’s
production of Copper, Zambia ranks second after Chile and
the Shaba province in D.R.C lies in the third position.

 The leading Copper producers in Africa include Zambia,

DRC, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Mauritania, and Namibia.
 Most of the Copper in Africa is exported to Western
Europe and Japan.

COPPER MINING IN ZAMBIA

 Zambia is one of the countries which is well endowed with
mineral resources in Africa. At one point in time it used to be
one of the largest exporters of minerals in the world.
 Both open cast and shaft mining are used to extract Copper.

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PROCESSING OF COPPER
 When the ore is mined and taken to the processing plants,
both the sulphiders and oxides are crushed in a powder form.
 The powder is then mixed with water forming a thin mud
(slime).
 Sodium salts are then added to Copper sulphide so as to
precipitate it.
 The Copper sulphide is then dried and smelted.
 Copper mining areas in Zambia include:
- Lusaka - Bwana mkubwa
- Mdola - Chambusi
- Kitwe - Chilila bombwe
- Luanshya - Nchanga
- Mufulira - Sakana
- Chimbwana

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SKETCHMAP SHOWING THE ZAMBIAN COPPER
BELT, RAILWAY LINES AND TOWNS

Uses of Copper include:-

IRON ORE MINING IN AFRICA

Africa has large reserves of iron ore and almost every country
has deposits of the mineral. The leading producers are Liberia,

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Mauritania, Gabon, Tunisia, Morocco, Senegal, Algeria, and
Republic of South Africa.
GOLD MINING IN THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH
AFRICA
This is the most important mineral in the Republic of South
Africa produces 67% of the World’s gold production.

Gold mining begun in the Witwatersrand between Kruger’s

drop and springs. It has had the world’s largest gold deposits in
mining history.

Other gold fields developed in the Orange Free State and other
towns lying east and West of Witwatersrand. All these towns
made up a popular mining region known as the Rand that later
developed into the Rand conurbation.
The major towns in the Central Rand are: - Brackpan
- Blacksburg
- Benoni
- Werkdorg
- Heidelberg
- Fontein
Johannesburg which is the main town in the Rand region
located in Transvaal province.
Extraction/Processing of gold
Gold is mined by the use of the shaft method because it is
usually at great depths.
Processing
 The mineral is crushed to fine Powderly dust.
 It is then mixed within a large precipitation tank until it is
liquid mud.
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 Cyanide is then added to dissolve the gold content and form
potassium gold cyanide.
 The actual liquid is then run off and zinc dust added which
helps to precipitate the gold.
 The gold is removed, smelted in order to remove all the
impurities and refined again.
 It is shaped into gold bars of the required sizes.
 Most of the processing is done at Germiston in the Rand
region.

SKETCHMAP SHOWING GOLD MINING AREAS AND

TRANSPORT ROUTES

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Identify any six uses/products from gold, uranium and iron ore.
Gold
 Making jewellery
 Making ornaments
 Making medals
 Making wedding rings

Uranium:
 Used for making atomic bombs.
 Used for generating current electricity.
 Used for labeling reacting particles in irreversible reactions.
 Used to generate atomic energy.
Iron ore:
 Used to make iron bars
 Used to make nails
 Used for making electromagnets
 Used to make iron sheets for roofing.

MINING IN NIGERIA
 Nigeria is one of the countries that are well endowed with
mineral resources and much of the country’s economic
progress is dependent on mining activities especially oil
mining.

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 Oil was discovered in the areas neighbouring the delta on the
Northern Margin around Warri and in the East near Port
Harcourt. There were sufficient deposits at Oloibere and this
made exploitation worthwhile. Oil is a compound Hydrogen
and carbon.
 Oil mining began in 1937 but commercial exploitation began
in 1956.
 Large oil deposits are found in Niger Delta and offshore in
the sea/Atlantic ocean.
 Rivers that provide water for mineral processing include R.
Binue and R. Niger.
 Minerals are exported through Port Harcourt and Lagos at the
Atlantic Ocean to U.S.A, Britain and Germany.
 Oil is majorly transported by pipeline and big tankers.
 Oil is mainly mined using the drilling method.
 Mining towns and centres include Abuja, Onishta, Jos
Plateau and Enugu.

Other minerals in Nigeria include:-

- Natural gas
- Tin
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- Coal
- Iron ore
- Limestone at the coast

SKETCHMAP OF NIGERIA SHOWING OIL MINING

AREAS, TRANSPORT ROUTES AND OTHER
MINERALS

UNDERSTANDING WHY MOST MINING IS CAPITAL-

INTENSIVE
1. To start with, under mining, one has to obtain a prospecting
license.
2. After the prospecting, the investor with adequate financial
competence needs an exploration license. In Uganda one
needs registration fees (500000) 1M application fee, 50000
per sq km as mineral rent annually, 300000 for gazeting
grant of EL.
3. The holder of an exploration license may apply to the
commissioner for the grant of a retention license. One
requires 500000 registration fees.
4. The investor needs a lot of capital to acquire a mining lease.
The fees involved include registration fee, preparation fee,
rental fees
5. A lot of money is required to register a mining company
6. A lot of money called construction capital (capex is
required to build infrastructure like roads, railways,
bridges, power generation station and sea sports to
facilitate extraction and shipping of ore and concentrate.
7. The operational expenditures of mining are very high (day-
to day cost) e.g. wages, fuel, camp costs for employees.
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 8. Deep level mining for example in the south Africa gold
mines is capital intensive to meet the demand of deep
underground tunnels, ventilation and surface processing
plants.
9. A lot of money is required to conduct and environment
impact assessment of the mining project, establish facilities
for handling mine wastes.

UNDERSTANDING WHY MINING IN AFRICA IS

CONTROLLED BY OVERSEAS COMPANIES

1. They are able to compensate the local people who are

affected in terms of resettlement.
2. They are able to invest in the required capital to set up
plants.
3. Government policy. i.e. the government attracts foreign
investors through tax exemptions, free land

DISCUSSING WHY MOST PEOPLE IN AFRICA MAY

NOT BENEFIT FROM MINING

Large mining operations in Africa have generated big profits

for the foreign companies, with little local benefits. Many local
people in the mining area complain that mining has only left big
holes in their midst with little social economic benefit.
1. The mines in some countries are owned by foreign
companies who send their profits overseas. (profit

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 repatriation). This is worsened by the fact that some foreign
companies don’t have local shareholders.
2. There are illegal out flows and international trade price
manipulation of minerals by multinational companies e.g.
DR cong. Some foreign companies down grade their
exports to save taxes
3. The granting of incentives by African governments to
attract investors in the mining sector such as extensive
taxes royalty exemptions. As a result, many countries earn
less from such contracts because the companies pay little
taxes to the government.
4. The tax avoidance and tax evasion by the foreign mining
companies has led to loss of huge revenues by African
governments
5. Corruption and poor management of the mineral resources
by government officials who take the largest share of
profits from the mining projects and thus making a few
people benefit.
6. Some foreign owned mining companies especially Chinese
companies employ foreign workers from their countries
their countries thus denying the local people job
employment.
7. The governments in many African countries don’t use the
tax revenue from mineral to improve socio-economic well
being of the local people in the mining areas.
8. Failure of the governments to negotiate fair deals with the
mining companies has made the companies to ignore the
local peoples concerns about environmental pollution and
compensation for people displaced by the mining
operations

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 9. The multinational companies use Morden technological
techniques (capital intensive) in the mining operation thus
employ few people.
10. The mining
projects cause too much environmental pollution thus
destroying people’s productivity and land
11. Workers are paid
poor wages

Ways to ensure that most people in Africa benefit from

mining.
1. Reviewing of major mining contracts to remove certain tax
holidays, enforce compensation and property rights for
people living in areas affected by the mines.
2. The export of mineral ores from the country should be
stopped to ensure value addition minerals produced in the
country. This can generate high paying jobs for local
people
3. The government should publically disclose information
such as mining contracts, beneficial owners’ revenue
payments. these discloses can in turn promote public
oversight and debate.
4. Checking corruption through parliamentary debates and
resolutions about the mining activities, contracts, taxes
5. Improving the equality of geologic data. Greater
knowledge of the potential values of mineral resources
leads to fairer deals and more equitable returns on mineral
sector investments. This can be achieved by building
capacity for geological mapping.
6. Civil society organization can play a critical role in
reducing corruption in the governance of mineral resources
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FACTORS/CONDITIONS FAVOURING MINING IN
AFRICA
 Presence of a variety of mineral resources that enable
extraction of mineral ores for the development of the sector.
 Nearness/closeness of a variety of mineral resources to the
surface enables use of simple and cheap mining methods such
as open cast.
 Presence of reliable / regular water supply provided by rivers
for the cooling of machines and mixing of minerals.
 Availability of well-developed transport network to ease
transportation of raw materials to mining centres and market
centres.
 Availability of modern/advanced and improved technology
through use of machines in the extraction of minerals.
 Availability of advanced/modern research/appropriate such
as aerial surveying, geo mapping for exploration and
exploitation of mineral resources.
 Availability of skilled labour to work in the mining sector as
machine operators, drivers and miners.
 Positive/supportive government policy that allows foreign
investors to inject income in the mining sector.
 Availability of a relative political stability that
supports/encourages mineral exploration and exploitation.

CONTRIBUTIONS/IMPORTANCE OF THE MINING

INDUSTRY
 It has provided employment opportunities to the people who
work as miners and engineers in the miners and earn income
to improve on their standards of living.

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 It has provided a large base for government revenue through
taxation of mining companies and people employed in the
mining sector. The income is used in the development of
infrastructures such as roads and hospitals.
 It has led to development of infrastructures such as roads,
railways and canals which ease transportation of minerals
from mining centres to market centres.
 It has generated foreign exchange to the country through
exportation of mineral products to countries such as U.S.A
and Japan. This has improved on international trade.
 It has improved on international relations between countries
which import the minerals. This has in turn promoted
political stability and foreign aid.
 It has led to economic diversification hence reducing over
reliance on other sectors such as agriculture and industry for
social-economic development.
 It has led to development of towns/urban centres with
improved social services such as piped water, banking and
insurance.

PROBLEMS FACED BY MINING INDUSTRY

 Negative price fluctuations on the world market affect trade
and disorganizes mining activities.
 There is a problem of mineral exhaustion leading to
unemployment of people normally working in mines.
 High costs of mining especially where shaft mining method
is carried out.
 Accidents resulting from fall routes of tunnels and flying
stones leading to loss of lives.

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 Poisonous gases which cause lung cancer and also lead to
labour shortage.
 Shortage of skilled labour and labour strikes due to low
wages and poor working conditions.
 Stiff competition from other available substitute metals e.g.
aluminum.
 High costs to export minerals and under developed transport
means make transportation of minerals difficult.
 Shortage of water used in processing industries.
 Congestion at the coast causes unnecessary delays.
 Political instabilities in countries like Zambia and
neighboring countries like Angola make transportation
difficult.
 Limited resource base resulting to economic depression.
 Possibility of over exploitation leading to exploitation of
minerals leading to exhaustion of minerals which limit
economic activities.
 Stiff competition from other active sources of energy such as
H.E.P, solar, nuclear reduces / limits market as well as
income.
 Creation of ghost towns especially where there is mineral
exhaustion leading to low income.
 Large scale exploitations resulting into environmental
degradation.
 Quotas imposed to reduce market and thus low income from
exports.
 Over production and thus low income from exports.
 Exportation of unprocessed minerals /crude oil/resources
reduces foreign income due to low prices.

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EFFECTS OF MINING ON THE PHSICAL
ENVIRONMENT
 Leads to environmental pollution i.e. land, water and air.
 Large scale mining operations lead to degradation
/deforestation/destruction of plant cover.
 Underground mining methods and open cast lead to creation
of hollow/depressions which are breeding grounds for
disease vectors such as mosquitoes for malaria.
 Lead to environmental degradation i.e. by changing soil
profile.
 Mining operations lead to earthquakes and tremors due to use
of explosives.
 The separation of wastelands after mining operations.
 They accelerate soil erosion/landslides/mass wasting.
 There is sinking of land.
 It has led to displacement of people.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
 Attempts have been made towards diversification of the
economy.
 Joining of regional and international trade agreements to
control price fluctuations.
 Emphasis has been put on use of protective gears to minimize
accidents.
 Construction of more dams to increase power supply.
 Restriction on output / exportation to minimize exhaustion.
 Improvement on the processed mineral quality to accepted
standards.
 Opening up alternative export routs and improving road
facilities.
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 Treating of mineral wastes to reduce land, water and air
pollution.
 Forming trade unions to improve on the working conditions
of workers to control labour strikes.
 Filling up open bits in roads.
 Planting of trees to minimize environmental degradation.
 Encouraging use of migrant skilled labour from neighbouring
countries.
Chapter Summary
In this chapter you have learned that;
 There are many minerals and mining centres in Africa.
 Mining has many advantages but also disadvantages.
 Mining impacts negatively on the physical environment.
 Local people may not directly benefit from mining projects.
 Large scale mining in Africa is mostly dominated by foreign
organisations.
 There is need to heavily invest in the mining sector to boost
the industrial sector.
 Mining contributes towards the development of
manufacturing industries.

INDUSTRIALISATION IN AFRICA
Industrialization refers to a situation where a country is increasing in production of marketing.
Manufacturing industries transform raw materials to semi-finished good.
The republic of South Africa is the most industrialized country in Africa.
Apart from South Africa, Egypt, Nigeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Zambia have developed
their industrial sector while other countries are lagging behind in industrial development.

INDUSTRIALISATION IN EGYPT
Egypt is the 2nd most industrialised nation in Africa after the Republic of South Africa.
It has experienced rapid industrial growth since 1938 and the industrial output is rising by about 10% per
annum.
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Cairo has oil refineries, textiles, electrical engineering, food processing and petro-chemicals.
Alexandria with oil refineries, textiles, ship building, chemicals and salt processing.
Port Said with oil refineries grain milling and salt processing.
Aswan with fertilizer plants, textiles, sugar refining, food processing.

Major industries in Egypt include:-

 Petro-chemicals at Alexandria and Suez producing drugs, plastics and synthetic fibres.
 Electronics at Cairo producing radios and TVs.
 Iron and steel at Helwan and Cairo.
 Textile industries based on Cotton growing along the Nile at Aswan and Asyut.
 Oil refineries at Port Said and Alexandria.
 Military equipment at Cairo.
 Food processing at Asyut.
 Fertilizer plants at Aswan whose raw material is phosphates.

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA

 South Africa is the most industrialized country in Africa.
 Most of the industries are found in the Rand conurbation.
 Before the 1930’s, South Africa played a traditional role of the raw material supplier on one hand and
offered market for manufactured goods like any other developing country.
 Today, the Republic of South Africa has developed a manufacturing sector and highly developed
transport and communication network comparable to that of Europe.
 The manufacturing sector of the Republic of South Africa is growing at a faster rate than any other
sector in the economy.

Major industrial distribution in the Republic of South Africa.

There are four major concentrations of industries in the Republic of South Africa and these include:-
- Western cape
- Eastern cape
- The Rand
- Durban

 Main industries include: Machinery, Cement processing, Textiles, Ship building, Chemicals, Oil
refineries and car assembling.
 These industries are found in the Witwatersrand stretching from Eklop to South Johannesburg.
 Workshop with industries such as chemicals, food processing and engineering.
 Vereeniging with chemical industries, electronics, textiles, tiles and brick making, iron and steel and
engineering.

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 Pretoria with food processing, iron and steel/metal industries, glass making, cables and electronics.
 Cape Town with diamond cuttings, chemicals, textiles, cement processing, printing and publishing.
 Durban with ship repairing/building, oil refineries in electronics.
 Other industrial centers include East London and Port Elizabeth.

Note:
The Republic of South Africa is involved in nuclear power industries, manufacturing computers and
assembling vehicles.
Although South Africa occupies 4% of Africa’s total area, she produces ½ of the total electronic power
generated from thermal and hydro-electric power plants.

The roles of energy resources in the development of manufacturing industries in east Africa/ Africa
1. Energy is a fundamental element to the development of modern industrial eceonemy. Energy
provides an essential ingredient for all most all human activities. The energy sources include fossil
fuels. (coal, oil, natural gas) hydroelectricity
2. Fossil fuels and renewable energy provide source for heat in industrial processes and space heating
in buildings.
3. Industrial sector uses electricity for operating industrial motors and machines, lights, computers
and office equipment.
4. Boiler fuel to generate steam or hot water.
5. Some energy resources provide raw materials to make products such as plastics and chemicals.

NB . make research and come up with a write up about

Problems of developing manufacturing industries in Africa.

Reasons for slow industrial development in Africa

FACTORS FAVOURING INDUSTRIALISATION IN AFRICA

 Availability of a variety of raw materials and mineral resources used in the industries.
 Existence of large/reliable/abundant supply of power and energy resources in form of oil for thermal
power, nuclear power, H.E.P from the dams to run machines.
 Availability of large volumes/constant/regular supply of water for industrial use as a raw material/ for
cooling machine.
 Well-developed transport networks in form of roads/railway system/air transport to ease
transportation/movement of raw materials and industrial products/finished products.
 Availability of advanced / high levels / appropriate technology to produce high quality products.
 Availability of skilled and semi-skilled labour force to work in the industries as engineers, machine
operators, drivers e.t.c.
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 Availability of a relative political stability that encourages establishment of industries/development.
 Availability of adequate/large sums of capital to invest in industrial establishment/purchasing
machines/paying workers.
 Presence of a large ready/wide ready market for industrial products within and abroad.
 Presence of vast/large tracts/extensive land for industrial establishment and expansion.
 Availability of supportive/positive government policy that favours industrial establishments
encourages foreign investments/subsidies/soft loans/tax exemptions.

PROBLEMS FACED BY INDUSTRIAL SECTOR

 Exhaustion of minerals that led to closure of some industries.
 Negative price fluctuations on the international market limits large scale production of industrial
products.
 Shortage/limited land for industrial expansion due to the large population concentrated n industrial
centers discourages investment.
 Shortage of skilled labour force to work in industries limits production of high quality products.
 Stiff competition for market with other industrialized countries producing high quality goods yet
relatively cheaper Japan, Germany, U.S.A and China.
 Profit repatriation due to the dominance of foreign multi-national companies/investors who often don’t
re-invest their profits into the country.
 Environmental pollution in form of air, water, noise and land due to heavy industrial establishment
that release dangerous industrial fumes, oil spills e.t.c.
 Limited supply of power and energy resources to run machines in industries e.g. H.E.P and coal.
 Labour strikes resulting from poor pay and unfavorable working conditions of workers usually makes
work come to a standstill.
 A narrow local market/small domestic market/dependence on external markets unreliable for industrial
development.
 Unfavorable government policies i.e. high taxes imposed on industrialists.
 Limited/shortage of capital/high costs of industrial establishment for further investment.
 High costs of importing raw materials especially where they are exhausted.
MEASURES / SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS
 Promoting regional co-operation to widen the markets / joining economic organizations like OPEC,
ECOWAS.
 Automation of the industrial sector/use of machines/importation of skilled labour/use of migrant
labour to increase production.
 Diversification of the power and energy resources e./g. use of thermal energy natural gas and nuclear
power.
 Importation of raw materials/recycling to solve the problem of exhaustion of raw materials.
 Acquiring loans from international financial institutions like IMF and World Bank to increase on
capital investment on industrial development.
 Developing infrastructure e.g. construction and rehabilitating roads, railways to ease movement.
 Industrial relocation/dispersal to avoid congestion and limited land for industrial expansion.
 Promotion of research high quality improvement of products.
 Use of raw material saving technology / production of precision goods.
 Anti-pollution laws/legislation/enactment of pollution tax.

EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIALISATION ON PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

 Environmental pollution of air, water and land due to industrial emissions of dangerous gases.
 Loss of bio-diversity (micro and macro fauna) due to destruction of vegetation cover.
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 Over-crowding and congestion leading to easy spread of contagious diseases like flue.
 Extraction of minerals for industrial development has led to creation of hallows/pit holes leading to a
change in the rock structure/soil profile.
 Deforestation/environmental degradation/swamp reclamation in order to create land for industrial
expansion.
 Traffic congestion in industrial centers leading to accidents and delays.
 Urban-related problems such as high crime rates and theft as a result of development of industrial
towns.
 Unemployment due to overpopulation of industrial centers.
 Migration of labour disrupts social setup of people.
 Slum development of poor accommodation facilities.

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