CE 35A/L - GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING I (SOIL MECHANICS)

MODULE 3
Soil Classification

Prepared by:
Engr. Victor Czar A. Austria

Faculty, CE Department
College of Engineering, Architecture and Technology
Palawan State University
This module has the following sections and corresponding icons:

Title It shows the specific topic of the module.

The topics in this module are included in

Overview
this section.

A brief debate on the lectures is given in

this section. It helps you explore new
Lecture Proper ideas and capabilities.

It involves questions or an expression

Practice Problems that sets out the concepts and wordings
that you learned from real-life
circumstances.

Assessment It is a job aimed at evaluating your

mastery in acquiring learning skills.

In this segment you will improve your

Supplementary
Knowledge awareness or experience through the
lectures as an additional practice.

This contains answers to all activities in

Answer Key
the module.

This is a list of all sources that this

References module uses for creation.

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 OVERVIEW

COURSE DESCRIPTION:
❖ This course deals with soil formation and identification. Engineering
properties of soils. Fundamental aspects of soil characterization and
response, including soil mineralogy, soil-water movement, effective stress,
consolidation, soil strength and compaction. Use of soils and geosynthetics
in geotechnical and geo-environmental applications. Introduction to site
investigation techniques. Laboratory testing and evaluation of soil
composition and properties.

COURSE OUTCOMES:
At the end of this module, students will be able to:
❖ Use soil classification tools in identifying soil types

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of this module, the students will be able to:
❖ Describe the four soil classification systems
❖ Identify the soil type using the four systems given the relevant data

PROGRAM OUTCOMES:
❖ An ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, physical sciences,
engineering sciences to the practice of civil engineering.
❖ An ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and
interpret data.
❖ An ability to design, build, improve, and install systems or processes which
meet desired needs within realistic constraints.
❖ An ability to recognize, formulate, and solve civil engineering problems.
❖ An understanding of the effects and impact of civil engineering projects on
nature and society, and of the civil engineers’ social and ethical
responsibilities.
❖ Specialized engineering knowledge in each applicable field, and the ability
to apply such knowledge to provide solutions to actual problems.
❖ An ability to effectively communicate orally and in writing using the English
language.
❖ An ability to engage in life-long learning and an acceptance of the need to
keep current of the development in the specific field of specialization.

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TIME FRAME:

❖ This module can be covered in one (1) week.

MODULE OVERVIEW:
❖ This module is designed to introduce the basic concepts of soil classification
systems. Classification systems provide a common language to concisely
express the general characteristics of soils, which are infinitely varied,
without detailed descriptions.

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 LECTURE PROPER

Lecture
Soil Classification System
3.1.

3.1.1. Introduction

Soil classification systems allow engineers to make decisions on the suitability of

various soils for various uses and applications. Following are some of the soil
classification standards:

Figure 3.1. Soil Classification System

• USCS – Unified Soil Classification System

• CSA – Canadian Standards Association
• European Standards (Euro-standards)
• AASHTO – American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
• ASTM – American Society for Testing and Materials

These classification systems were devised for the following reasons:

- to facilitate the transfer of information between interested parties (engineering
and construction profession)
• relate to the performance or usefulness for supporting structures
• relate to the handling or working qualities of a soil
- to group together in relatively broad categories the soils that have similar
features or properties that are considered of importance

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However, you are also reminded that these systems have their limitations like:
- it is not necessarily an identification system in which all pertinent engineering
properties of a material are determined
- it should not be used as a sole basis for design or construction planning

Below are some desirable requirements of a good classification system:

a. There should be a limited number of groupings, so that the system is easy to
remember and use.
b. The properties and behavioral characteristics should have meaning for the
engineering and construction profession
c. Description used for each grouping should be in terms that are easily
understood and are in common use for indicating the soil type and its
properties.
d. Classification into any grouping should be possible because of visual
identification without special tests or equipment being necessary.

Lecture
Textural Classification/USDA Soil Classification
3.2.

3.2.1. Introduction

In a general sense, texture of soil refers to its surface appearance. Soil texture is
influenced by the size of the individual particles present in it. Particle size distribution
divided soils into gravel, sand, silt, and clay categories on the basis of particle size. In
most cases, natural soils are mixtures of particles from several size groups. In the textural
classification system, the soils are named after their principal components, such as sandy
clay, silty clay, and so forth.

Figure 3.2 shows the textural classification systems developed by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA). This classification method is based on the particle-
size limits as described under the USDA system.

• Sand size: 2.0 to 0.05 mm in diameter

• Silt size: 0.05 to 0.002 mm in diameter
• Clay size: smaller than 0.002 mm in diameter

3.2.2. Textural Classification

- commonly encountered by planners, designers, and construction personnel who

also work with government soil maps and agriculture-related organization
- categorizes soil on the basis of texture without consideration for other properties
such as plasticity
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 Figure 3.2. U.S. Department of Agriculture textural classification (USDA)

Example 3.1. A soil sample containing 20 percent gravel sizes, 30 percent sand, 25
percent silt, and 25 percent clay would be modified as follows:

Solution:
30
percent sand = (100%) = 37.5%
100 - 20

25
percent silt = (100%) = 31.2%
100 - 20

25 (100%) = 31.2%
percent clay =
100 - 20

and would be classified as clay loam.

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 Lecture
Unified Soil Classification System
3.3.

3.3.1. Unified Soil Classification System

- satisfies the desirable requirements of a classification system and is coming into
prevalent use in the engineering and construction field.
- classifications are on the basis of coarse-grained and fine-grained soils and
retain the four common groupings of soil - gravel, sand, silt and clay
- refinement in groupings is based upon a coarse soil's being well or poorly graded
and fine-grained soil's being of high or low plasticity

This system classifies soils into two broad categories:

1. Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in nature with less than 50%
passing through the No. 200 sieve. The group symbols start with a prefix of G or
S. G stands for gravel or gravelly soil, and S for sand or sandy soil.
2. Fine-grained soils are with 50% or more passing through the No. 200 sieve. The
group symbols start with prefixes of M, which stands for inorganic silt, C for
inorganic clay, or O for organic silts and clays. The symbol Pt is used for peat,
muck, and other highly organic soils.

Other symbols used for the classification are:

• W—well graded
• P—poorly graded
• L—low plasticity (liquid limit less than 50)
• H—high plasticity (liquid limit more than 50)

Table 3.1. Unified Soil Classification System

(Based on Material Passing 76.2-mm Sieve)

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Note:
• Gravels with 5% to 12% fines required dual symbols: GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM,
GP-GC.
• Sands with 5% to 12% fines required dual symbols: SW-SM, SW-SC, SP-SM, SP-
SC.
• Uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of gradation (Cc)
𝐷60
𝐶𝑢 = Eq. 3 – 1
𝐷10
(𝐷30 ) 2
𝐶𝑐 = Eq. 3 – 2
(𝐷60 )(𝐷10 )

Uniformity Coefficient (Cu)

The uniformity coefficient (Cu) is defined as the ratio of D60 to D10. A value of Cu
greater than 4 to 6 classifies the soil as well graded. When Cu is less than 4, it is
classified as poorly graded or uniformly graded soil.

Uniformly graded soil has identical particles with Cu value approximately equal to
1. A uniformity coefficient value of 2 or 3 classifies the soil as poorly graded. Beach
sand comes under this category.

A higher value of Cu indicates that the soil mass consists of particles of different
size ranges.

Coefficient of Curvature (Cc) of Soil

For the soil to be well graded, the value of Cc must range between 1 and 3.

For any single-sized soil mass, the value of both Cu and Cc is 1.

• If 4 ≤ PI ≤ 7 and plots in the hatched area in Figure 3.3, use dual symbol GC-GM
or SC-SM.
• If 4 ≤ PI ≤ 7 and plots in the hatched area in Figure 3.3, use dual symbol CL-ML.

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 Figure 3.3. Plasticity Chart

For proper classification according to this system, some or all of the following information
must be known:
1. Percent of gravel—that is, the fraction passing the 76.2-mm sieve and retained on
the No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm opening)
2. Percent of sand—that is, the fraction passing the No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm opening)
and retained on the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm opening)
3. Percent of silt and clay—that is, the fraction finer than the No. 200 sieve (0.075-
mm opening)
4. Uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of gradation (Cc)
5. Liquid limit and plasticity index of the portion of soil passing the No. 40 sieve

Table 3.2. Coarse-Grained Soil (Unified Soil Classification System)

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 Table 3.3. Fine-Grained Soil (Unified Soil Classification System)

The group symbols for coarse-grained gravelly soils are GW, GP, GM, GC, GC-
GM, GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, and GP-GC. Similarly, the group symbols for fine-grained
soils are CL, ML, OL, CH, MH, OH, CL-ML, and Pt.

More recently, ASTM designation D-2487 created an elaborate system to assign

group names to soils. These names are summarized in Table 3.3 and 3.4. In using these
figures, one needs to remember that, in a given soil,

• Fine fraction = percent passing No. 200 sieve

• Coarse fraction = percent retained on No. 200 sieve
• Gravel fraction = percent retained on No. 4 sieve
• Sand fraction = (percent retained on No. 200 sieve) - (percent retained on No. 4
sieve)

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Example 3.2. Classify the soil using the Unified Soil Classification System given the data
below. Give the group symbol and the group name.

• Percentage passing through No. 4 sieve = 70

• Percentage passing through No. 200 sieve = 30
• Liquid limit = 33
• Plastic limit = 12

Solution:
The percentage passing No. 200 sieve is 30%, which is less than 50%. So, it is a
coarse-grained soil.

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 Coarse fraction = 100 - 30 = 70%
Gravel fraction = percent retained on No. 4 sieve = 100 - 70 = 30%

Since 30% of the soil retained on No. 4 sieve, the soil sample is Sand which must be 50%
of passing on Sieve No. 4. The percentage passing on Sieve No. 200 is 30% so the soil
may be SM or SC which are Sand with fines.

Plasticity Index = LL – PL
PI = 33 – 12 = 21

Since PI > 7, the soil sample is SC (Clayey sand with gravel) as show in Table 3.1.

Example 3.3. The figure gives the grain-size distribution of two soils. The liquid and
plastic limits of minus No. 40 sieve fraction of the soil are as follows:

Soil A Soil B
Liquid Limit 30 26
Plastic Limit 22 20

Determine the group symbols and group

names according to the Unified Soil
Classification System.

Solution:
a. Soil A
From the figure, D10 = 0.085 mm, D30 =
0.12 mm, and D60 = 0.135 mm. It also
shows that the percent passing on Sieve
No. 200 is 8. Thus, the soil is Coarse-
grained Soil.
Sieve No. 4 has an opening of 4.76 mm. Particle size distribution of the soil displayed a
maximum of 1.0mm so there is no soil retained on Sieve No. 4 which means that there is
a 100% passing making the soil, Sand.

𝐷60 0.135
𝐶𝑢 = = = 1.59
𝐷10 0.085

(𝐷30 )2 (0.12)2
𝐶𝑐 = = = 1.25
(𝐷60 )(𝐷10 ) (0.135)(0.085)

Since Cu < 6.0 and Cc > 1.0, the soil is categorized as SP but the soil having a percent
passing on Sieve No. 200 of 5% - 12% means that the soil requires double symbols.

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Since the soil has a passing percentage of 8%, soil requires double symbols.

Plasticity Index = LL – PL
PI = 30 – 22 = 8

Since PI > 7 and Cu < 6.0 and Cc > 1.0, the soil sample is SP-SC (Poorly-graded
sand with clay) as show in Table 3.1.

b. Sand B
The grain-size distribution curve in the figure shows that percent passing No. 200 sieve
is 61 (>50%); hence, it is a fine-grained soil.

Plasticity Index = LL – PL
PI = 26 – 20 = 6

Given that liquid limit of soil of 26 and a 4 ≤ PI ≤ 7,

plotted on Figure 3.3, the soil is CL-ML.

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 Lecture
AASHTO Classification System
3.4.

3.4.1. AASHTO Classification System

- has been in national use for highway- and transportation-related construction
projects
- classifies soil material into eight groups, with assignment to a particular group
based on determination of particle size distribution, liquid limit and plasticity
index, and presence of organic material

Table 3.4. AASHTO Classification Chart

Note: Plasticity index of A-7-5 subgroup is equal to or less than the LL - 30.
Plasticity index of A-7-6 subgroup is greater than LL - 30
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In the AASHTO system:
▪ gravel is material smaller than 75 mm (3 in.) but retained on a No. 10 sieve;
▪ coarse sand is material passing a No 10 sieve but retained on a No. 40 sieve;
and fine sand is material passing a No. 40 sieve but retained on a No. 200 sieve.
▪ Material passing the No. 200 sieve is silt-clay and is classified based on Atterberg
limits.
▪ It should be noted that the division between gravel and sand is made at a smaller
size (No. 10 sieve) in the AASHTO system than in the unified system (No. 4 sieve).

Secondly, if any fines are present, Atterberg limits are determined and the plasticity
index is calculated. A soil is a granular material if less than 35% of the soil by weight
passes the No. 200 sieve (#200). Granular materials are classified into groups A-1
through A-3. Soils having more than 35% passing the No. 200 sieve are silt-clay and fall
in groups A-4 through A-7. Having the proportions of the components and the plasticity
data, one enters one of the two alternatives AASHTO classification tables and checks
from left to right until a classification is found for which the soil meets the criteria. It should
be noted that, in this scheme, group A-3 is checked before A-2. Soils classified as A-1
are typically well-graded mixtures of gravel, coarse sand, and fine sand. Soils in subgroup
A-1-a contain more gravel whereas those in A-1-b contain more sand.

Soils in group A-3 are typically fine sands that may contain small amounts of non-
plastic silt. Group A-2 contains a wide variety of “borderline” granular materials that do
not meet the criteria for groups A-1 or A-3. Soils in group A-4 are silty soils, whereas
those in group A-5 are high-plasticity elastic silt. Soils in group A-6 are typically lean clays,
and those in group A-7 are typically highly plastic clays. Within groups containing fines,
one may calculate a group index to further evaluate relative quality and supporting value
of a material as sub-grade. The group index is calculated according to the following
empirical formula:

Group Index:

GI = (F200 – 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL – 40)] + 0.01(F200 – 15)(PI – 10) Eq. 3 – 3

Where:
F200 – percentage passing through Sieve No. 200
LL – Liquid Limit
PI – Plasticity Index

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 Figure 3.4. Range of liquid limit and plasticity index
for soils in groups A-2, A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7.
The first term of Eq. (3.3) — that is, (F200 - 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL - 40)] — Is the partial
group index determined from the liquid limit. The second term — that is, 0.01(F200 - 15)(PI
- 10) — is the partial group index determined from the plasticity index. Following are some
rules for determining the group index:

1. If Eq. (3.3) yields a negative value for GI, it is taken as 0.

2. The group index calculated from Eq. (3.3) is rounded off to the nearest whole
number (for example, GI = 3.4 is rounded off to 3; GI = 3.5 is rounded off to 4).
3. There is no upper limit for the group index.
4. The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3
is always 0.
5. When calculating the group index for soils that belong to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7,
use the partial group index for PI, or
GI = 0.01(F200 – 15)(PI – 10) Eq. 3 – 4

In general, the quality of performance of a soil as a subgrade material is inversely

proportional to the group index.

Example 3.4. The results of the particle-size analysis of a soil are as follows:

• Percent passing the No. 10 sieve = 42

• Percent passing the No. 40 sieve = 35
• Percent passing the No. 200 sieve = 20

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The liquid limit and plastic limit of the soil are 25 and 20, respectively. Classify the soil by
the AASHTO system.

Solution:
Since the percent passing on Sieve No. 200 is 20% which is less than 35%, the
soil is a granular soil as per table 3.4. Hence it can be A-1, A-2, or A-3.

Plasticity Index = LL – PL
PI = 25 – 20 = 5

GI = (F200 – 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL – 40)] + 0.01(F200 – 15)(PI – 10)

GI = (20 – 35)[0.2 + 0.005(25 – 40)] + (20 – 15)(5 – 10)
GI = - 26.875
GI = 0

Starting from the left of the table, the soil falls under
A-1-b(0) with a group index of 0.

Example 3.5. Ninety-five percent of a soil passes through the No. 200 sieve and has a
liquid limit of 60 and plasticity index of 40. Classify the soil by the AASHTO system.

Solution:

Ninety-five percent of the soil (which is ≥ 36%) is passing through No. 200 sieve. So,
it is a silty-clay material. Now refer to Table 3.4. Starting from the left of the table, it falls
under A-7-6.

Parameter Specification of A-7-6 Parameters of Soil

Percent Passing on Sieve No. 200 36 min. 95
Liquid Limit (LL) 41 min. 60
Plasticity Index (PI) 11 min. 40
PI > LL – 30 PI = 40, > 60 – 30 = 30

GI = (F200 – 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL – 40)] + 0.01(F200 – 15)(PI – 10)

GI = (95 – 35)[0.2 + 0.005(60 – 40)] + 0.01(95 – 15)(40– 10)
GI = 42

So, the classification is A-7-6(42).

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 PRACTICE PROBLES

1. A fine-grained soil is found to have a liquid limit of 70 % and a plastic limit of 38%.
(a) On the plasticity chart for the Unified Soil Classification System, what soil type
is this?
(b) On the plasticity chart for the AASHTO classification system, what soil type is
this?

2. A silt-clay soil has a plastic limit of 25 and a plasticity index of 30. What soil type
is this, according to the Unified Soil Classification System and the AASHTO
system?

3. A soil sample having no particles larger than No. 4 sieve is classified as a sandy
silt, ML, by the Unified Soil Classification System (LL = 25 %, PL = 5 %; silt particles
comprise 70 % of the sample, sand 15 %, and clay 15 %). What is the probable
soil classification in the AASHTO system? In the US Dept. of Agriculture textural
system?

ASSESSMENT

❖ Assessment for this module will be scheduled by the instructor.

ANSWER KEY

❖ Answer key for this module will be provided on the next module.

REFERENCES

❖ McCarthy, D. F. (2001). Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundations:

Basic Geotechnics, 6th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
❖ Das, Baja; Sobhan, Khaled. (2014). Principles of Geotechnical
Engineering. Cengage Learning
❖ Budhu, Muni. 2011. Soil Mechanics and Foundation, 3rd Edition. USA.
John Wiley and Sons. Inc.

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