Canadainthe1920s

Society & Identity

How did new technologies

influence society in the
1920s?

How does the United States

influence Canadian identity?

How did women advance their

status during the 1920s?

In what ways was Aboriginal

identity threatened in the
1920s?

Why was there labour unrest

after the First World War, and
how did people try to improve
their working conditions?

Politics & Government

• What is regiona lism, and how

was it expressed in the 1920s?

Economy & Human Geography

What was the impact of

American investment on the
Canadian economy?

Autonomy & World Presence

e What factors contributed to

Canada's emerging autonomy?

1919 1920 1921 1922 1923

Winnipeg General Strike British Columbia votes Minority government elected Prime Minister Mackenzie Mackenzie King signs the Halibut
gives voice to post -war against Prohibition Agnes Macphail becomes first King refuses to send Treaty with the United States and
dissatisfaction woman elected to Parliament troops to support Britain refuses to let Britain sign
league of Nations during the Chanak Crisis Foster Hewitt gives play-by-play for
Frederick Banting and Charles
established, with Canada Best discover insulin first radio broadcast of a Canadian
as a full member hockey game

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 CHAPTER FOCUS QUESTION
How did Canada adjust to political, social, and economic changes
following the First World War?

The 1920s are generally thought of as a decade of prosperity, fun,

and wild living. To some extent this was true. The end of the war
released an emotional flood of relief. Prompted by the horror and KEY TERMS
exhaustion of war, young people in particular tried to sweep away communism
the remnants of the old world. This was the "Jazz Age:' Bold new Winnipeg General Strike
music, shocking fashions, and crazy fads quickly spread across the collective bargaining
United States and into Canada. Prohibition
This 1927 editorial from Canadian Homes and Gardens may Persons Case
Famous Five
give a false picture of what life was really like for most women,
Canadian Constitution
but it certainly catches the optimism of the age: regionalism
Old Age Pension Act
Chanak Crisis
There is a certain magic to housekeeping these days-the Halibut Treaty
magic of electricity-over which I corifess I never cease to King-Byng Crisis
marvel. Your modern housewife leaves the dishes within a Imperial Conference
machine, pops the dinner into an oven, laundry into a Balfour Report
Statute of Westminster
washer, and jumps into a roadster [car] with never a
Depression
thought except for. .. the round of golf which she is away to
enjoy for an afternoon. She returns to find the washing
done, her china and crystal sparkle, a six course dinner is
ready for serving.
-Canadian Homes and Gardens, Mczy 1927

Life did improve for many people in the 1920s. For many more,
however, the prosperity of the decade was merely an illusion. Life
continued as before, filled with discrimination, poverty, and lack
of political power.

•
1924
Revised Red Ensign
•1926
King-Byng Crisis illustrates
•
1927
Federal government
•1929
Persons Case opens
approved for use on Canada's need for introduces old-age way for Canadian
Canadian government autonomy from Britain pensions; first government- women to be appointed
buildings abroad Imperial Conference leads run assistance program in to the Senate
to publication of the Balfour Canada Stock market crashes
Report

Chapter 3 Canada in the 1920s 61

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 Why was there labour unrest An Uneasy Adjustment
after the First World War, and
how did people try to improve In November 1918, Canadians celebrated the end of the First World
their working conditions? War. Soldiers returned home to find that there were few support serv-
ices for them, and few jobs. Many Canadians who had jobs were also
dissatisfied. During the war, workers had reluctantly agreed to lower
wages as part of their patriotic duty. After the war, inflation made it dif-
ficult for many people because wages no longer covered the cost of rent
and food. Workers demanded more money, and confrontation with
employers was inevitable.

The Rise of Communism

At the end of the First World War, many people around the world were
dissatisfied with governments and the disparity between rich and poor.
As you read in Chapter 2, the Bolsheviks established a communist
regime during the violent 1917 Russian Revolution. Under communism,
all the means of production (such as factories and farms) and distribu-
tion (transportation and stores) are publicly owned. There is no private
or individual ownership of business or land. The Bolsheviks encouraged
workers around the world to join this revolution. Communism never
gained widespread support in Canada, but the ideas of these revolution-
aries inspired workers in Canada to try to improve working conditions.
FIGURE 3-1 English translation of a
1919 Russian Communist publication
Analyzing Images What do you think
Workers Respond
the chains represent? What message
Workers' demands for higher wages, better working conditions, and the
is being conveyed?
right to join unions resulted in numerous strikes across Canada. Many
strikes were long, bitter disputes. Standoffs between workers and
KEY TERMS employers, for example, led to four years of labour wars in Eastern
inflation the rise in prices for goods and
Canada. Most communities in the Maritimes depended on a single
services that increases the cost of living employer for jobs: the British Empire Steel Corporation. When demand
and triggers demand for higher wages for wartime industries declined after the war, the company tried to save
communism a social and economic theory costs by reducing wages. The workers responded by reducing their out-
that property, production, and distribution put and striking. When the strikes turned violent, the company looked
of goods and services should be owned by
the public, and the labour force organized
for support from provincial police and federal troops. In 1926, a Royal
for the benefit of all members of society Commission criticized the labour practices of the British Empire Steel
socialist believing in a system in which Corporation, but the Commission's findings did little to ease suffering
the government controls the economy so and poverty in the Maritimes.
that everyone benefits equally
There were also many strikes over wages and working conditions in
branch plants factories, offices, or other western Canada. Some western union leaders were more socialist in
operations set up in Canada but owned
their policies, believing as the Bolsheviks did, that ordinary people
or controlled by U.S. or other foreign
companies should be more involved in government. At the Western Labour
tariffs taxes on imported goods
Conference in March 1919, union leaders from Western Canada
founded One Big Union (OBU), which would represent all Canadian
primary industry an industry that deals
with the extraction or collection of raw workers. The OBU's goal was to help workers gain more control of
materials, such as mining or forestry industry and government through peaceful means. The main weapon
secondary industry an industry that deals would be the general strike, a walkout by all employed workers.
with manufacturing or construction

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Canada's Changing Economy e What was the impact of
American investment on the
Canada began the 1920s in a state of economic depression. By the middle of Canadian economy?
the decade, however, the economy started to improve. Wheat remained an
important export for Canada, but there was also enormous growth in the
exploitation of natural resources and manufacturing. The demand for
Canadian pulp and paper grew, and new mills were built in several
provinces. Mining also boomed. Record amounts of lead, zinc, silver, and
copper were produced for export. These minerals were used to produce
consumer goods such as radios and home appliances. The expanding forest
and mining industries increased demand for hydroelectric power and
several new hydro-generating stations were constructed to provide Canadian
industries with cheap energy.

The United States Invests in Canada's Economy

Before the war, Canada traded mainly with Britain. After the war, Britain
was deeply in debt, and the United States emerged as the world's economic
leader. During the 1920s, American investment in Canada increased.
American companies invested in pulp and paper mills and mines across
Canada. The majority of these resources were then exported to the U.S.
Almost 75 percent of the newsprint produced in Canada was exported to the
U.S. Most of the metals mined in Canada were used in American-made
products, such as cars and radios.

American Ownership of Canadian Businesses

Rather than lend money to Canadian businesses the way the British had,
most American investors preferred to set up branch plants. By manufactur-
ing cars in Canada for the Canadian market, American car makers avoided
having to pay Canadian tariffs. By the
end of the 1920s, the Canadian auto
industry had been taken over by the "Big
Three" American automobile
companies-General Motors, Ford, and
Chrysler. American companies also
owned a large proportion of Canada's oil
business, nearly half the machinery and
chemical industries, and more than half
the rubber and electrical companies.
Many Canadians were so pleased with
American investment that they did not
question the long-term consequences. It
was true that the United States enriched
Canada's economy by extracting or har-
vesting raw materials (primary indus-
tries), but these materials were
transported to the U.S. for processing and
manufacturing (secondary industries). It
FIGURE 3-2 Logging in British Columbia continues to be the
was the American economy that benefited province's major industry.
most from this development.

Chapter 3 Canada in the 1920s 63

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The Winnipeg General Strike: Labour Unrest
or Communist Conspiracy?
In 1919, the labour movement grew across Canada.
Workers formed trade unions in many different indus-
tries. These groups usually demanded higher pay, better
working conditions, and an eight-hour workday. Scores of
workers took action by walking off the job. It is said that
more workdays were lost to strikes and lockouts in 1919
than in any other year in Canadian history.
Post-war tensions between labour and business
boiled over in Winnipeg, at that time the financial centre
of Western Canada and its largest city. The city's metal
and building trades workers demanded higher wages, a
shorter workweek, and the right to collective bargaining,
which would allow union leaders to negotiate with
employers on behalf of the union members. Labour and
management negotiated for months. Finally, in May
1919, negotiations broke down and the Winnipeg Trades
and Labour Council voted for a general strike. Up to
30 000 people walked off the job, crippling the city.
The strike closed factories and retail stores. Many
people sympathized with the striking workers and joined
their strike, including firefighters and postal workers. FIGURE 3-3 Strikers attacked this streetcar as it moved through the
There were no streetcars or deliveries of bread or milk, crowd because it was operated by the Citizens' Committee of 1000.
and no telephone or telegraph services. Winnipeg was Thinking Critically What does the photograph tell you about the
paralyzed. The Strike Committee, which coordinated the Winnipeg General Strike? How does the information in the photo-
graph compare with the Workers' Liberty Bond?
strike, bargained with employers and allowed essential
food items to be delivered. Opponents of the strike felt
that this showed that the strikers were running Winnipeg, The federal government decided to intervene
instead of the legally elected civic government. because it feared that the disruption and protest could
Not everyone sympathized with the strikers. Many spread to other cities. It changed the Criminal Code so
people in Canada worried that the formation of trade that foreign-born union leaders-and anyone whom it
unions might lead to the same violent uprisings that hap- believed was trying to start a revolution-could be
pened in Russia. The Red Scare contributed to an anti- arrested and deported without trial. The federal
communist sentiment that made people nervous about government also sent troops to Winnipeg to try to
unions. In response to the strike, business leaders, politi- restore order.
cians, and industrialists formed the Citizens' Committee On June 21, strikers held a parade to protest the
of 1000. The committee saw the union leaders as part of mayor's actions. The parade turned violent when the
a communist conspiracy to overthrow the government. Royal North-West Mounted Police and the city's special
They urged Winnipeg's leaders to restore order. The city force, armed with clubs and pistols, charged the crowd .
responded by firing the entire police force, who sympa- In the resulting clash, one striker died, 30 were injured,
thized with the strikers, and replacing them with a special and scores were arrested. This event became known as
force to contain the strike. The mayor of Winnipeg also Bloody Saturday. Defeated, the strikers returned to work
had many civic workers and the strike leaders arrested. after a 43-day protest.

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- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -· Perspectives

Why was there labour unrest

after the First World War and
how did people try to improve
their working conditions?

What did the strike achieve? In the short run, the union KEY TERMS
movement suffered a setback. Seven of the arrested leaders Winnipeg General Strike massive strike
were convicted of conspiracy to overthrow the government by workers in Winnipeg in 1919
and served between two months and two years in prison. collective bargaining negotiation of a
Many striking workers were not rehired; others were taken contract between unions and manage-
back only if they signed contracts vowing not to join a union. ment regarding such things as wages
and working conditions
Distrust and divisions between the working class and busi-
Red Scare the fear that communism
nesses grew deeper.
would spread to Canada
In the long run, the verdict is less clear. A Royal
Bloody Saturday June 21, 1919, when
Commission set up to examine the strike found that the work- the Royal North-West Mounted Police
ers' grievances were valid. Gradually, much of what they charged a crowd of protesters during
fought for was achieved. Some of those involved in the strike the Winnipeg General Strike
took up political positions in which they could work toward
social reform. For example, J.S. Woodsworth (a well-known
social reformer who was arrested during the strike) went on to
found the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (see
Chapter 4), which later became the New Democratic Party.

Looking Further

1. Write a newspaper headline to explain the reaction of the

Citizens' Committee of 1000 to the Winnipeg General
Strike. Remember the attitudes and values of the times.
2. Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper to explain why
you think the Winnipeg strikers were, or were not, justi-
fied in their actions.

FIGURE 3-4 Canadians

were able to show their
support for the strikers
in Winnipeg by buying
bonds to assist in the
"fight for liberty." The
Workers' Defence Fund
used the bonds to help
pay for the legal costs
of those arrested .

Chapter 3 Canada in the 1920s 65

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 Bootlegging Across the Border
There was one product that Canada exported in large quantities
to the United States: illegal alcohol. Although organizations such
as the Woman's Christian Temperance Union succeeded in
bringing about prohibition during the First World War, alcohol
was still available for those with money. People could get it as a
"tonic" from a doctor, or from a "bootlegger"-someone who
made or sold alcohol illegally. By 1920, the provincial govern-
ments had to admit that Prohibition was not working: it was too
unpopular with most Canadians. From 1921 on, most provincial
governments regulated the sale of alcohol rather than ban it. In a
series of plebiscites, Canadians eventually adopted government-
controlled liquor outlets.
In the United States, Prohibition continued until1933.
Canadians took advantage of this golden opportunity to supply
the U.S. with illegal liquor. Rum-running-smuggling alcohol
into the U.S.-became a dangerous but profitable business.
Ships from ports in the Maritimes and Quebec, speedboats from
FIGURE 3-5 This young woman with a liquor flask Ontario, cars and trucks from the Prairie provinces, and salmon
in her garter reflected the carefree attitude toward trawlers from British Columbia transported alcohol to the U.S.
alcohol that was at odds with those who sup- as fast as they could. Although it was dangerous, rum-running
ported Prohibition.
was extremely profitable. Many Canadians tolerated rum-
Thinking Critically In what ways would this young
runners and admired how they flouted the U.S. authorities.
woman have outraged the older generation? What
comparisons can you make with the attitudes of Canadian governments seemed content to close their eyes to
young and old today? the practice.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS -

1. Explain the terms communism, general strike, and Source 1

collective bargaining. ... this is not a strike at all, in the ordinary
sense of the term-it is a revolution. It is a
2. a) What was the effect of the 1917 Communist
serious attempt to overturn British institutions
(Bolshevik) Revolution in Russia on Canada?
in this Western country and to supplant them
b) Why was the One Big Union seen as a threat? with the Russian Bolshevik system of Soviet
rule.. ..
3. Review the concept of perspective and world view
-Winnipeg Citizen, Mczy 17, 1919
in Building Your Skills (page 82). In a two-column
organizer, list reasons why the views from the Source 2
following two newspaper sources would differ. It must be remembered that [Winnipeg] is a
city of only 200 000, and that 35 000 persons
are on strike. Thus it will be seen that the
strikers and their relatives must represent at
least 50 per cent of the population. In the
numerical sense, therefore, it cannot be said
that the average citizen is against the
strike... there is no soviet [revolutionary coun-
cil]. There is little or no terrorism.
-Toronto Star, Mczy 23, 1919

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The Roaring Twenties How did new technologies
influence society in the
The upswing in the economy meant that many Canadians could afford more 1920s?
luxuries and leisure time. The decade became known as the "Roaring
Twenties:' reflecting the general feeling of indulgence. The misery of the
First World War was over and people enjoyed the new forms of entertain- KEY TERMS
ment that were available. The "flapper" look dominated women's fashion. prohibition the banning of the sale and
"Bobbed" hair, hemlines above the knees, and silk stockings outraged the consumption of alcohol

older generations. Young people also scandalized their parents with dances plebiscite a direct vote by electors on an
such as the Charleston, the Shimmy, and the Turkey Trot. issue of public importance; the outcome
of the vote may not be binding on the gov-
ernment

Increased Mobility
In the 1920s, the automobile was beginning to change the landscape of the
country. The invention of the assembly line in 1913 by Henry Ford meant
that cars could be mass produced inexpensively and quickly. The most pop-
ular automobile was the Model T Ford. By the late 1920s, 50 percent of
Canadian homes had an automobile. Its popularity prompted more and bet-
ter roads to be built, making it easier for people to travel.
Aviation expanded rapidly in the years after the war. Airplanes helped to
make the rugged coast of British Columbia and Canada's remote northern
regions more accessible. Many veteran pilots
became "bush pilots" who flew geologists and
prospectors into remote areas to explore mining
opportunities. Wilfrid "Wop" May was one of the
best-known bush pilots who became famous for
his daring exploits. In 1929, he and another young
pilot tackled dangerous flights from Edmonton to
help save the people of Fort Vermilion from a con-
tagious outbreak by delivering serum. May's most
famous adventure was his participation in the
RCMP hunt for Albert Johnson, the "Mad
Trapper" of Rat River. May's flight made Canadian
history due to the duration of the chase and
because it was the first time two-way radios and FIGURE 3-6 Jack Bowen, Frank Riddell, and Wilfrid "Wop" May,
(far right)
aircraft were used in pursuit of a criminal.

Improved Communications
WEB LINK
By the 1920s, the telephone had become a standard household appliance. Read more about Wop May on the
Pearson Web site.
Telephone lines were shared by many neighbours, which meant anyone
could listen in on your conversation. Widespread use of the radio began to
break down the isolation between far-flung communities. It soon became a
necessity, bringing news as well as popular culture and entertainment into
Canadian homes across the country. The radio was a revolutionary develop-
ment. Smaller Canadian stations, however, soon found it difficult to com-
pete with bigger, more powerful stations from the United States. By the end
of the 1920s, nearly 300 000 Canadians were tuning in to American stations
for their news and entertainment. Canada would move to introduce legisla-
tion to ensure Canadian content, which you will learn about in Chapter 6.

Chapter 3 Canada in the 1920s 67

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 Canadian Inventions
and Inventors
During the 1920s, Canadians witnessed rapid changes in
technology. Many innovations occurred in household
appliances, and inventors from Quebec made surviving the

.... --..
.....
Canadian winter a little easier.

...,._ ..... ............ ... .., .... ••••••••

A vehicle of necessity Armand Bombardier

of Valcourt, Quebec, was only 15 years old
when he developed the snowmobile in
1922. Over the next few years, he improved
on the first machine and designed vehicles
that could travel on snow-covered roads.
An alternative to the snow shovel Born in Quebec, Arthur Sicard His invention helped people in rural and
responded to Canadian winters by inventing the snow blower in 1925. The diffi- remote areas of Canada overcome the isola-
culty of travelling on snowy roads in early automobiles led him to find a way to tion of winter.
efficiently remove snow. He adapted a four-wheel-drive truck to carry a snow-
scooping section and a snow blower that would clear and throw snow up to
30 metres away from the truck.

Rogers hits the airwaves

In 1925, Edward Rogers
of Toronto invented the
world's first alternating
current (AC) radio tube,
replacing the noisy,
battery-operated model.
The AC radio tube allowed
radios to be powered by
ordinary household
electric current. In 1927,
he launched the world's
first all-electric radio sta-
tion, called Canada's First
Rogers Batteryless
A medical breakthrough In 1921-1922, Frederick (CFRB). In 1931, he was
Banting, assisted by Charles Best, discovered insulin. granted Canada's first 2"""":.'; ·""'" --:
This discovery continues to help millions of people suf- television licence.
fering from diabetes. In 1923, Banting won the Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

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Arts and Leisure How does the United States
influence our Canadian
With the Roaring Twenties and new-found prosperity, people sought out
identity?
different forms of entertainment. Canada began to find its voice as a nation
with a distinct culture. As a result, several new forms of distinctly Canadian
art and entertainment emerged in the 1920s. KEY TERM
Group of Seven group of Canadian
Moving Pictures landscape painters in the 1920s
Soon radio entertainment was rivalled by moving pictures-the movies. At
first, movies were silent. An orchestra or piano player would provide sound
effects to accompany the silent screen, while subtitles conveyed the messages
and dialogue. The "talkies" arrived in 1927 with comedians such as Laurel
and Hardy and the Marx Brothers.
Movies about Canada were made here during the early days, but
Canadian-made films could not compete with productions from the big stu-
dios in the United States. Eventually Hollywood came to dominate the
industry. In the absence of a home-grown industry, many Canadian actors,
writers, and technicians were drawn to the glitter and glamour of
Hollywood. Many were very successful. Movie star Mary Pickford, born in
Toronto, became known as ''America's Sweetheart:'

FIGURE 3-7 The

Mounties as a symbol of
Canada were a favourite
topic with Hollywood. In
true Hollywood style, the
Mounties always caught
the villain and got the
girl.
Using Evidence What
stereotypes are used in
this photo to portray the
RCMP? Do these stereo-
types still hold for the
Mounties today? WEB LINK
Read more about the Group of
Seven on the Pearson Web site.

A New Canadian Art

The increased American influence on Canada's culture coincided with the
development of a new Canadian art movement. In 1920, the Group of
Seven held an exhibition in Toronto that broke with traditional Canadian
art. These painters were in tune with the new post-war national confi-
dence. Rather than imitate realistic classical styles, members of the group
sought to interpret Canada's rugged landscape as they saw it, using broad,
bold strokes and brilliant colours. Although criticized by some critics in
FIGURE 3-8 Stamp commemorating
the early years as the school of "hot mush" painting, the Group of Seven
the Group of Seven
had gained wide acceptance by the end of the 1920s.

Chapter 3 Canada in the 1920s 69

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 Canada's Growing National Identity
The emerging sense of independence and identity was also reflected in
Canadian literature. The political magazine Canadian Forum first appeared
in 1920. Political debates and works of Canadian poets and writers appeared
regularly on its pages. As well, Maclean's magazine published Canadian sto-
ries and articles from across the country, being careful to use only Canadian
spellings. Canadian novelists R.J.C. Stead, F.P. Grove, Martha Ostenso, and
Morley Callaghan wrote novels about Canadians and their experiences. And
poets A.J. Smith and Frank Scott wrote passionately about Canada and
Canadian issues. Yet Canadian magazines and writers found it difficult to
compete with American magazines and books.

Sports as Popular Entertainment

The thirst for entertainment led to tremendous interest in spectator sports.
Hockey came into Canadian homes across the country when sportswriter
Foster Hewitt made the first play-by-play radio broadcast in 1923. Canadian
athletes also succeeded on the international stage, including two notable
athletes who excelled in several sports. Lionel Conacher was a baseball
player, a star at lacrosse, a football player,
and an NHL all-star. Nicknamed the "Big
Train:' Conacher was known for his power,
stamina, and speed. One day in 1922, he hit
a triple in the last inning of a baseball game
to win the championship for his team and
then later the same day he scored four
times and assisted once in lacrosse, bring-
ing victory to that team as well. Fanny
"Bobbie" Rosenfeld is one of Canada's
greatest female athletes. She was a star at
basketball, softball, hockey, and tennis, as
well as track and field. In the 1928 Olympic
FIGURE 3-9 Bobbie Rosenfeld (number 677). At the Amsterdam Games in Amsterdam, she won a gold and a
Olympics, Rosenfeld won a silver medal in the 100-m dash and a gold in
the women's relay team. She was at one time the joint holder of the world
silver medal for Canada, becoming a
record for the 100-yard [91-metrel dash, which she ran in 11 seconds. national hero and the best-known
Canadian woman of her time.

-
PRACTICE QUESTIONS -

1. What evidence is there that the 1920s were the 3. How did new technology contribute to the spread
beginning of the modern "consumer age"? of American popular culture in Canada?
2. a) Which innovations made the 1920s a period of 4. What does the interest in professional sports tell
great change in communications. you about leisure time and the standard of living
for Canadians in this period?
b) Beside each development, make short notes
on how the change affected Canadian society. 5. Compare and contrast Bobbie Rosenfeld's and
Lionel Conacher's achievements as athletes with
c) How did these
those of popular sports heroes of today. How
technological developments make Canada
would you account for the differences?
a "smaller" country?

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~•, • • up close
•• ••
• !'l!d. personal
Emily Carr: From Ridiculed to Revered

Emily Carr was a unique Canadian artist and writer. 1. To what degree did the isolation of Victoria and
Born in 1871 in Victoria, B.C., she trained in the B.C. influence the art of Emily Carr?
United States, England, and France at a time when
2. Would you consider Emily Carr's art to be
new trends in twentieth-century art were developing.
uniquely Canadian? Explain your answer.
She was also inspired by the Group of Seven. She
was moved by their bright, powerful images and 3. How important is art like that of Emily Carr and
inspired by their uniquely Canadian vision and com- the Group of Seven in developing a Canadian
mitment to their art. Lawren Harris, one of the Group, identity? Explain.
became her mentor and helped her develop her artis- 4. Why are her paintings so popular today? Explain
tic style. your answer.
Carr seemed to thrive in the isolation of British
Columbia's wilderness and drew her themes from
First Nations culture and the raw power of
nature. She painted scenes of West Coast forests
and Aboriginal cultures. Carr made many jour-
neys to sketch at isolated villages in coastal B.C.
She described her work as follows:

Local people hated and ridiculed my newer

work .... Whenever I could afford it I went up
to the North, among the... woods and forgot
all about everything in the joy of those lonely
wonderful places. I decided to try and get as
good a representative collection of those old
villages and wonderful totem poles as I
could.... Whether anybody liked them or not
I did not care a bean. I painted them to
please myself in my own way. ... OJ course
nobody wanted to buy my pictures
-Emily Carr

At first, Carr gained little recognition for her

work. She had almost abandoned hope of
making a living from painting when the National
Museum in Ottawa organized a showing of West
Coast art built around her work. Carr eventually
had shows at the Vancouver Art Gallery and in
Eastern Canada.
Emily Carr's expression also took the form of
writing, publishing journals and five books. She
won a Governor General's Literary Award for
Klee Wyck, a collection of stories about her life
with British Columbia First Nations peoples. FIGURE 3-10 Totems and Indian Houses

Another well-known book is her autobiography, Using Evidence How representative of Canada at the time was Emily
Carr's painting?
Growing Pains.

Chapter 3 Canada in the 1920s 71

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 Missing the Roar
Not everyone benefited from the social and economic changes of
the Roaring Twenties. Many Canadians still battled discrimina-
tion, lack of political representation, and poverty.

The Role of Women

In the 1920s, hopes were high for reforms in health, education,
and the working conditions for women and children. Women
were gaining more control of their lives and were taking on roles
traditionally held by men, such as factory workers, politicians, and
even sports stars. Despite these gains, women still faced many
social and political restrictions.

Women's Social Status

The main role of women was as wives and mothers. Married
women were expected to stay at home and raise a family. Single
FIGURE 3-11 New labour-saving devices-such
as the washing machine, refrigerator, vacuum women had limited career opportunities. They could be nurses or
cleaner, and electric iron-became more afford- teachers, but these jobs paid very poorly. A few women became
able to middle-class women. But this often
meant that women were expected to maintain
doctors, lawyers, professors, or engineers, but most women who
higher standards of cleanliness in the home. worked in business or industry held jobs as secretaries, telephone
operators, or sales clerks. Women usually earned much less than
men for doing the same job.

Women in Politics
How did women advance their
status during the 1920s? Although most women had won the right to vote in federal elections in
1918, only four women ran for office during the 1921 election. Only one,
Agnes Macphail, won her seat. Macphail was the only woman in the House
of Commons until1935. The four Western provinces elected nine women to
their legislatures, but the federal and provincial governments remained
firmly male dominated. Although progress for women at the political level
was slow, they made gains in social reform. Mary Ellen Smith, British
Columbia's first female Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA), and
reformer Helen Gregory MacGill fought to expand rights for women and
children. By the end of the 1920s, an Equal Rights measure was passed in the
B.C. legislature. It reversed most of the laws restricting the political and legal
rights of women.

1917 1918 1920 1921 1922

Equal Guardianship of The Women's Franchise Act Mothers' Pensions Act Mary Ellen Smith Jury duty for women approved
Infants Act gives passed, allowing most women to appointed first female Maternity Protection Act
women same rights to vote in federal elections Cabinet minister prohibits the employment of
their children as men Mary Ellen Smith becomes B.C.'s women until six weeks after
Helen Gregory MacGill first female Member of the delivery
appointed British Legislative Assembly Fathers made responsible for the
Columbia's first Minimum Wage Bill for Women maintenance of their children
female judge passed

72 Unit 1 Canada in Transition: A Nation Emerges

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The Persons Case
The Persons Case of 1929 brought the issue of
women participating in politics to a head. Emily
Murphy, a well-known suffragist, was appointed a
magistrate in Alberta. Her appointment was chal-
lenged on the basis that only "persons" could hold
this office under the BNA Act, and that women were
not "persons" in the eyes of the law. The Supreme
Court of Alberta ruled that Murphy did, indeed,
have the right to be a judge, but the matter did not
stop there. Emily Murphy and four other women
activists, known as the Famous Five, challenged FIGURE 3-12 The Famous Five were Nellie McClung, suffrage
Prime Minister Mackenzie King to appoint a woman activist and writer; Emily Murphy, writer and the first female
senator and to clarify the definition of"persons:' In magistrate in the British Empire; Irene Pari by, the first female
cabinet minister in Alberta history; former Alberta MLA Louise
April1928, the Supreme Court of Canada decided McKinney; and Henrietta Muir Edwards, who helped found the
that women were not "persons" under the Canadian National Council of Women of Canada and the Victorian Order
Constitution. Murphy and her associates appealed of Nurses.
to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Thinking Critically How do the backgrounds of the Famous Five
represent the changing roles of women in the early 20th
Britain. On October 18, 1929, the Judicial
century?
Committee declared its support for the women:

[The exclusion] of women from all public offices is a relic of days more
KEY TERMS
barbarous than ours.... To those who would ask why the word "person"
Persons Case a court case in which the
should include females, the obvious answer is, why should it not? Famous Five successfully fought to have
-Privy Council]udgement, October 18, 1929 women declared "persons" under
Canadian law in 1929

Famous Five five Alberta women who

Following the decision, Henrietta Muir Edwards wrote:
fought for the political status of women

Canadian Constitution the document that

Personally I do not care whether or not women ever sit in the Senate, describes the powers and responsibilities
but we fought for the privilege for them to do so. We sought to establish of the government and its parts, and the
rights of citizens
the personal individuality of women and this decision is the announce-
ment of our victory. It has been an uphill fight.
-Quoted in A Harvest to Reap: A History of Prairie Women, 1976

The struggle for equality was far from won. The economic upheaval of the
next decade would threaten the Famous Five's hard-earned gains.

•
1923
Factory Act
•
1925
Equal inheritance
•
1928
Mary Ellen Smith
•
1929
Women declared
•1931
Equal Rights measure
amendment prohibits approved for boys and appointed the first "persons" under gives women legal
children under 15 from girls female speaker of Canadian law equality with men
working the B.C.
legislature

Chapter 3 Canada in the 1920s 73

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 In what ways was Aboriginal
Aboriginal Peoples: The Struggle to Preserve an Identity
identity threatened in the
Aboriginal peoples saw little of the good life in the 1920s. As you read in
1920s?
Chapter 2, Aboriginal veterans returning from the battlefields of Europe
found that their contribution to the war effort did little to change their situ-
ation at home. Aboriginal peoples were still not classified as "persons" under
the law. They could not vote in provincial or federal elections. In British
Columbia, Aboriginal people did not win the right to vote in provincial elec-
tions until1949. It was not until1960 that all Aboriginal peoples across
Canada could vote in federal elections.

A Policy of Assimilation
The government continued to use residential schools in an attempt to
assimilate Aboriginal children. First Nations peoples were instructed by the
government to replace traditional or family leaders with graduates of resi-
dential schools. This practice often divided the community between those
who supported traditional leaders and those who sought to replace them.

FIGURE 3-13 In 1920, attendance at residential schools was still compulsory. Instruction was in English
and children were not allowed to speak their first language, at the risk of being severely punished.
Using Evidence Use the diagram on page 82 in Building Your Skills: Establishing Cause,
Effect, and Results to create a cause and effect diagram dealing with residential schools. Cause and 1Consequence

In the early 1920s, First Nations peoples in British Columbia challenged

the federal and provincial governments by fighting for the right to hold pot-
latches, an important cultural ceremony among certain peoples of the
Pacific Coast. At this ceremony, births, deaths, marriages, and other signifi-
cant events were recorded in the oral tradition. Potlatches involved families
and even entire villages and was a way of establishing status in tribes.
The government viewed potlatch ceremonies as an obstacle to assimila-
tion. The practice was forbidden in 1884. The ban was vigorously enforced
after the First World War when the Kwagiulth people decided to hold several
potlatch ceremonies in 1921. The provincial government arrested the chiefs
responsible, and many were sentenced to jail terms.

74 Unit 1 Canada in Transition: A Nation Emerges

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The Struggle for Land KEY TERMS

Aboriginal peoples in British Columbia continued to struggle for land Aboriginal title claims by Aboriginal peo-
ples to lands that their ancestors inhabited
claims, or Aboriginal title, in the 1920s. Only a few First Nations peoples on
Vancouver Island had negotiated land treaties. The federal government had cut-off lands lands taken from reserves
without consent of the Aboriginal peoples
set aside large tracts of land as reserves, but it had been taking some of this
enfranchisement giving up one's status as
land without the consent of the Aboriginal bands involved. These were
an Indian
known as cut-off lands. Aboriginal leaders wanted their claims to the land
self-determination the freedom for a
recognized by the federal government. As you read in Chapter 1 (page 13),
group to form its own government
Joe Capilano travelled to London, England, in 1906 to present a land claim
petition to King Edward VII. Several years later, the Allied Tribes of British
Columbia appealed the federal government taking cut-off lands. They
claimed the government had gone against the Indian Act, which regulated
relations between the federal government and the Aboriginal peoples. The
federal government responded by changing the Indian Act so that
Aboriginal consent was not needed to transfer reserve lands to the govern-
ment. The Act was also amended to prevent anyone from raising money to
pursue land claims without special permission. This made it virtually
impossible for First Nations peoples to fight for Aboriginal title.

The Road to Self-Determination

In addition to residential schools and cut-off lands, Aboriginal peoples also
fought against the federal government's use of enfranchisement to try to
enforce assimilation. In 1920, the Indian Act was changed to allow the gov-
ernment to enfranchise people without their consent. This meant that the
government could take away a person's Indian status and land. Aboriginal
peoples resisted the government's policy of involuntary enfranchisement
and it was given up two years later. But Aboriginal women who married
men who were not status Indians were still forced to give up their Indian
status (see Chapter 10).
Cayuga Chief Deskaheh (Levi General), a leader of the Six Nations
Council of the Iroquois Confederacy, took the issue of Aboriginal
self-determination to the League of Nations in 1923. He wanted interna-
tional recognition of the Six Nations as an independent state and to end ties
with Canada and the Indian Act. The Six Nations would have their own
laws, financing, employees, and police. In a radio talk in 1925, Deskaheh
explained the rationale behind the Six Nations' fight for self-determination.
Unfortunately, Britain blocked Deskaheh's efforts for the League of Nations
to hear the Six Nations' claims. Self-determination for Aboriginal peoples in
Canada is still an issue today.

This story comes straight from Deskaheh, one of the chiefs of the
Cayugas. I am the speaker of the Council of the Six Nations, the oldest
League of Nations now existing. It was founded by Hiawatha. It is a
League which is still alive and intends, as best it can, to defend the
rights of the Iroquois to live under their own laws in their own little
countries now left to them, to worship their Great Spirit in their own
way, and to enjoy the rights which are as surely theirs as the white
man's rights are his own.
-Chief Deskaheh

Chapter 3 Canada in the 1920s 75

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 African Canadians: Undisguised Racism
The Canadian government discouraged the entry of African
Americans into Canada during the heyday of immigration before the
First World War. Those who managed to move to Canada faced bla-
tant discrimination. In Nova Scotia, the Education Act of 1918
allowed separate schools for "Blacks" and "Europeans:' a policy that
remained unchanged until1954. Racial segregation was openly prac-
tised and, in some instances, supported by the courts. For example,
in 1921, the Superior Court of Quebec ruled in favour of racially
segregated seating in Montreal theatres.
There were also instances of tolerance. In 1919, the Brotherhood
of Railway Employees accepted black porters as members. In 1924,
Edmonton City Council refused to support an attempt to ban
African Canadians from public parks and swimming pools.
FIGURE 3-14 The Ku Klux Klan, founded
in the southern United States, promoted
fanatical racial and religious hatred against Immigrants
non-Protestants and non-whites. In the
1920s, the Klan established short-lived After the First World War, the Canadian government adopted immi-
local branches in Canada, such as this one gration restrictions, giving preference to applicants from Britain and
in Vancouver in 1925. the United States. Some Canadians did not want restrictions on
Thinking Critically What does the exis- immigration for selfish reasons and others welcomed immigrants
tence of the Ku Klux Klan in Canada say
because they would work for low wages in jobs that Canadian work-
about the attitudes of the time?
ers did not want. Labour groups, however, supported the restrictions
because unions saw the willingness of some immigrants to work
long hours for low wages as "unfair competition:'
Restrictions on Asian immigrants were particularly severe. In
1923, the federal government passed a law that virtually excluded
Chinese immigrants to Canada until1947 (see Chapter 1). A
Canada-Japan agreement in 1922 restricted immigration from Japan
to 150 servants and labourers per year.
In 1925, as the economy improved, the government relaxed
restrictions on immigration. Thousands of immigrants landed
monthly at Canada's ports looking for jobs and security. Many were
forced to work in terrible conditions for pitiful wages.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. •· What does it mean to be a Aboriginal peoples were prepared to defend their

"person" in a legal sense? How did the idea of rights?
not being a person affect women, Aboriginals, and
4. With a partner, list the issues and criticisms faced
visible minorities?
by women in the 1920s and women of today.
2. What was the attitude toward women in positions Which are most similar and most different?
of authority in Canada during the 1920s?
5. How were blacks treated in Canada during the
3. Give examples to show that the federal govern- early 20th century?
ment was pursuing a policy of cultural assimilation
6. Which groups supported immigration and which
of Aboriginal peoples. What responses show that
did not? Explain.

76 Unit 1 Canada in Transition: A Nation Emerges

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A New Challenge to Federalism: e What is regionalism , and how
was it expressed in the 1920s?
Regionalism
After the war, regionalism, or the concern of the various regions of the
KEY TERMS
country with their own local problems became more pronounced in
Canadian politics. federalism a political system that divides
power between federal and provincial
legislatures
The Maritimes regionalism a concern for the affairs of
one's own region over those of one's
During the 1920s, the Maritime provinces (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, country
and Prince Edward Island) found that their influence in national politics
free trade trade between countries
was declining. The population in the Maritimes was small, which meant it without tariffs, export subsidies, or other
had fewer seats in Parliament. Some businesses and banks moved to Ontario government intervention
and Quebec, while others suffered because their products (such as coal)
were no longer in demand. Prominent business and political leaders formed
the Maritime Rights movement and urged politicians to promote policies
that would benefit the Maritimes.

The Prairies and Rural Ontario

Other regional challenges came from farmers on
the Prairies and in rural Ontario. They were frus-
trated by the National Policy of 1878 that placed
tariffs or duties on foreign goods imported into
Canada. These tariffs made foreign goods more
expensive, encouraging people to buy goods pro-
duced in Canada. Western farmers felt alienated by
this policy because they had no such protection.
They were forced to buy Canadian-made machin-
ery, but their agricultural products were sold on
the open world market. Farmers wanted free
trade, abolishing tariffs and allowing them to buy
cheaper American-made machinery. They also
wanted lower freight rates and storage fees.
When neither the Liberals nor the
Conservatives met their demands, farmers formed
their own political parties. By the early 1920s,
Ontario and the Prairie provinces had all elected
members of United Farmers' parties to their legis-
latures. In some provinces, these parties formed
the government. In 1920, the federal Progressive
Party was created, led by Thomas Crerar, a former
Minister of Agriculture in Robert Borden's Union
Government. The Progressive Party wanted a new
National Policy based on free trade and public FIGURE 3-15 In 2001, Manitoban farmers demanded more finan-
cial aid from the government by driving their vehicles to the legis-
ownership of the railways. lature in a national day of protest.
Thinking Critically How effective do you think this protest was in
getting support for the farmers? In what ways was this protest the
same as and different from protests of the 1920s?

Chapter 3 Canada in the 1920s 77

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KEY TERMS Quebec
nationalize move from private to The economic boom in the 1920s, and Quebec's proximity to the United
government ownership
States, led to rapid growth in many Quebec industries. Cheap labour and
minority government a government in vast forests resulted in the expansion of the province's pulp and paper
which the ruling party has less than half
the total number of seats in the legislature industry to feed the u.s:s demand for newsprint. Increased manufacturing
in Canada and the U.S. during this decade helped to expand Quebec's min-
Old Age Pension Act an Act passed in
1927 to provide social assistance to ing industries. To provide power to its growing industries, Quebec took
people over 70 advantage of the hydroelectric potential of its many rivers. The abundant
hydroelectric resources attracted the aluminum industry, and the Aluminum
Company of Canada opened several plants.
As Quebec's industries expanded, so did its desire to protect its own
interests. Hostility to the Conservative Party because of conscription and
language rights helped the Liberals sweep all65 seats in Quebec in the 1921
federal election. Provincial politics were dominated from 1920 to 1936 by
Premier Louis-Alexandre Taschereau's Liberal Party.

Western Interests
For most of the 1920s, British Columbia was led by Liberal John Oliver, who
often attacked the federal government for favouring the interests of Eastern
Canada. B.C:s growing economic strength during the 1920s meant its politi-
cians had a stronger voice in federal politics. The products of B.C:s forests
and mines were in demand. Communities grew around the new pulp and
paper mills and mines. After the war, the port of Vancouver began to benefit
from the Panama Canal that had opened in 1914. More importantly, Pacific
Coast ports could challenge Eastern Canada's dominance in shipping
Western grain. Premier Oliver went to Ottawa three times to demand rail-
way freight rates be reduced, a fight he won each time. As a result, annual
shipments of grain from B.C. ports increased throughout the 1920s. By the
end of the decade, 40 percent of Canada's grain was exported through B.C.

FIGURE 3-16 Cow East and West

Interpreting a Cartoon What
point is being made by the car-
toon? How effective is the cartoon
in explaining its message? Why?

78 Unit 1 Canada in Transition: A Nation Emerges

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Canadians Choose a New Government
Regionalism and the Progressive Party greatly influenced the results of the
1921 federal election, effectively upsetting the balance of power between the
Liberals and Conservatives.
In the 1921 election, both the Liberals and the Conservatives had new
leaders. William Lyon Mackenzie King was chosen to lead the Liberals in - born 1874, Anderson, Ontario
1919. He had a reputation as a reformer and was an authority on social and -lawyer
economic issues. Arthur Meighen, a brilliant debater and long-standing -first elected to Commons in 1908
-prime minister 1920-1921,
Member of Parliament, was chosen to replace Borden as the leader of the June-September 1926
Conservatives. While King always tried to find the middle path that would
offend the fewest people, Meighen believed in principles over compromise Domestic Record
and did not care who might be offended by his stand on issues. Meighen's • helped write and pass the Military
hard line alienated many groups before the election. His involvement in cre- Service Act and Wartime
Elections Act
ating the Conscription Act and the new electoral laws of 1917 meant he had
• created the Canadian National
little support in Quebec. His harsh treatment of the leaders of the Winnipeg Railways in 1919 by nationalizing
General Strike also provoked the hostility of the labour movement. several transportation companies
The Progressive Party's election platform was based on their proposed • played a prominent role in ending
National Policy, calling for free trade and to nationalize the railways. In the the Winnipeg General Strike in
1919
election, the Progressives managed to win an astonishing 64 seats, mostly in
• formed a minority government
Western Canada. This made it the second largest party in Parliament, giving
during the King-Byng Crisis in
the Liberals a minority government. Because they were not the majority, 1926
the Liberals needed the support of some of the opposition members to pass
legislation. International Record
Despite its initial success, the Progressive Party did not last very long. • successfully argued against an
Anglo-Japanese alliance at the
However, it was influential in bringing about changes to Canada's social pol-
1921 Imperial Conference
icy. In 1926, for example, King was challenged by the Progressives to set up
an old age pension. The Old Age Pension Act was passed in 1927. The Act
was an acknowledgement that government had a role to play in providing a
network of social services for its citizens. The Progressive Party lost public
support in the 1925 and 1926
elections, and it eventually dis-
solved. But it did manage to
change Canadian politics by help- FIGURE 3-17 In a 1920 speech, Arthur Meighen said ,
ing to create Canada's first minor- "Thousands of people are mentally chasing rainbows,
ity government. striving for the unattainable, anxious to better their lot
and seemingly unwilling to do it in the old-fashioned
way by honest intelligent effort. Dangerous doctrines
taught by dangerous men, enemies of the State, poison
and pollute the air.... "
Using Evidence What groups was Meighen referring
to? How would they have reacted to his speech?

PRACTICE QUESTIONS -__: ~

1. List the concerns expressed by each region during 2. Why was the Progressive Party so successful dur-
the 1920s: Maritimes; Quebec; Prairies and rural ing the 1921 election? What impact did this have
Ontario; Western Canada. To what extent were the on the federal government from 1921 to 1926?
concerns resolved?

Chapter 3 Canada in the 1920s 79

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 e What factors contributed to Canada's Growing Independence
Canada's emerging autonomy?
After the First World War, Prime Minister Borden took a number of impor-
tant steps that raised Canada's profile internationally, including participating
in the Paris Peace Conference and signing the Treaty of Versailles (see
Chapter 2). Mackenzie King, once he became prime minister, continued to
push for greater independence from Britain.

The Chanak Crisis

In 1922, Mackenzie King refused Britain's call for support when British
occupation troops were threatened by nationalist Turks during the Chanak
- born 1874, Berlin (Kitchener), Crisis. Chanak was a Turkish port controlled by Britain as a condition of
Ontario
- author, editor, journalist, lawyer
one of the treaties signed at the Paris Peace Conference. If Turkey regained
- first elected to Commons in 1908 this port, it would have clear access to Europe through the Black Sea to the
- prime minister 1921-1926, Mediterranean. Britain saw this as a threat and sent a telegram to King, ask-
1926-1930,1935-1948
ing him to send Canadian troops to support the Empire. Instead of auto-
Domestic Record matically granting Britain's request, King brought the issue to Parliament.
• created the Industrial Disputes
By the time the issue was debated in the House of Commons, the crisis in
Investigation Act in 1907 Turkey had passed. The Chanak Crisis marked the first time that Canada did
• helped create Canada's first old- not automatically support the British Empire in war.
age pension program in 1927
• fought for Canadian autonomy
during the King-Byng Crisis The Halibut Treaty
(1926) and in signing the Halibut
Treaty with the United States
The following year, Canada negotiated a treaty with the United States to
(1923) protect halibut along the coasts of British Columbia and Alaska. Mackenzie
• appointed Cairine Wilson as the King insisted that Canada be allowed to sign the Halibut Treaty without the
first woman senator in 1930 signature of a British representative. Britain wanted to maintain its imperial
• commissioned the Rowell-Sirois right to sign international agreements on Canada's behalf. When Britain
Report of 1937 tried to pressure King into letting their representative sign the treaty, King
• introduced unemployment insur- insisted that it was a matter between Canada and the U.S. He threatened to
ance in 1940
set up an independent Canadian representative in Washington, and Britain
• held national plebiscite on con-
scription in 1942 backed down. The Halibut Treaty was the first treaty negotiated and signed
• passed the Family Allowance Act independently by the Canadian government.
in 1945
• helped create the Canadian
Citizenship Act in 1947, which
The King-Byng Crisis
was the first statute to define
In 1926, Mackenzie King publicly challenged Britain over the role of the
Canada's people as Canadians
governor general and Britain's influence on Canada's internal politics in
• longest-serving prime minister in
Canadian history what became known as the King-Byng Crisis. During the election of 1926,
King was able to avoid the issue of the scandal and appeal to nationalist sen-
International Record timents. He claimed that it was undemocratic for the Governor General, an
• defended Canada's autonomy official appointed by Britain, to refuse to take the advice of the prime minis-
during the Chanak Crisis ( 1922) ter, who was elected by Canadians. Since the King-Byng crisis, no Governor
• helped create the definition of General has acted against the wishes of an elected prime minister.
Dominion status at the Imperial
Conference of 1926
• insisted that Parliament decide if
Canada would become involved
in international conflicts

80 Unit 1 Canada in Transition: A Nation Emerges

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 KEY TERMS
1925 Election. Prim e Kin1 wishes to remain Governor General Byn1
Minister Mackenzie King's prime minister. King asks lflniS Kin1's request. Chanak Crisis the Canadian government's
Liberals win fewer seats than Governor General Viscount The governor general is refusal in 1922, lead by King, to support
Meighen's Conservatives. Byng to let him remain in responsible for making British troops in defending the Turkish
power because he has sure that the Canadian port of C hanak; the first time the
the support from the prime minister and
Progressives in Parliament. government have the Canadian government did not support
(The prime minister and confidence of Parliament. the British military
Cabinet can stay in power
if they maintain the Halibut Treaty a 1923 treaty between
majority of votes in the Canada and the U.S. to protect halibut
House of Commons.)
along the Pacific Coast; the first treaty
negotiated and signed independently by
the Canadian government
Byn1 refuses. He argues Kin1 asks lor another A customs scandal erupts
that the vote of censure favour. King asks Governor in 1928. The Conservatives governor general the person who
has to be completed first. Gen eral Byng to dissolve ca ll for a motion of represents the British crown in Canada
King resigns. Parliament and call an censure-a vote of strong
election. King knows he disapproval-against
will lose the Parliament King's government. The King-Byng Crisis a situation that occurred
vote but that he will win a scanda l weakens the in 1926 when Governor General Byng
general election. Progressive Party's refused Prime Minister King's request to
support for King's Liberal dissolve Parliament and call an election
government.
coalition a formal alliance of political
parties
Mei1hen Kets the boot. Another election. Byng Kin1 returns to power.
Governor General Byng is forced to dissolve King and the Liberals win confidence in politics, it means support
appoints Meighen, the Parliament and call an a majority government in
leader of the Conserva- election in September the 1926 election. prorogue to postpone or suspend, as in
tives, to be prime minister. 1926.
Parliament
Meighen's government is
ousted from Parliament
three days later after a
non-confidence vote.

FIGURE 3-18 After the King-Byng Crisis, King gained national support by claiming it
was undemocratic for the governor general, a British representative, to go against the
wishes of a prime minister elected by Canadians.

FAST FORWARD

King-Byng Revisited in 2008?

In 2008, Prime Minister Stephen Harper faced a crisis
similar to that of Mackenzie King in 1926. The three oppo-
sition parties (Liberal, New Democrat, and Bloc
Quebecois) were dissatisfied with the minority Conservative
government's financial policies and formed a coalition to
oust the government. They asked Parliament to hold a
non-confidence vote against Harper's government. Before
the vote took place, Harper asked Governor General
Michaelle Jean to prorogue, or suspend, Parliament for a
month so the government could bring in a new financial
policy. Governor General Jean agreed. During the month
Parliament was suspended, Harper managed to convince FIGURE 3-19 This cartoon shows the three opposition
the Liberal leader to accept the Conservatives' new finan- leaders, Stephane Dian, Gilles Duceppe, and Jack
cial plan and support them in the non-confidence vote. Layton, pointing at Stephen Harper.

With the Liberals' support in Parliament, Harper's Using Evidence How would you have advised Governor
General Jean regarding Harper's request to suspend
Conservative government stayed in power.
Parliament?

Chapter 3 Canada in the 1920s 81

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 Establishing Cause, Effect, and Results

How many times have you been asked to discuss the effects, and results of an event in different ways, and
causes of an event on an exam? As you probably their differing viewpoints will often lead them to differ-
know, it is much easier to describe what, where, and ent conclusions about the same event.
when an event happened than to explain why it Although the discussion on this page deals with
happened. For example, there is no disagreement that history, you will find examples of cause and effect
the First World War (what) began in Europe (where) in throughout this textbook. Issues related to politics,
1914 (when). Explaining the causes, effects, and human rights, population, and the environment all
results of the war is not so straightforward. Was one raise questions about cause-effect-result relationships.
country more responsible than others? Why did Is the drop in voter turnout in elections related to
countries declare war? Why did the generals continue demographics? What impact did the atrocities in the
to use outdated tactics? What future events resulted Second World War have on the development of human
from the decisions made at the Paris Peace rights legislation? What changes in the environment
Conference? can be directly related to global warming?
Events in history are the result of many other
events that directly or indirectly caused that incident
Applying the Skill
to happen. This is called causality. Understanding
causality helps us to see the relationship between one 1. Referring to Figure 3-20, create a cause-effect-
event (the cause) and another event (the effect). The
results organizer for the Winnipeg General Strike.
effect then leads to long-term results or consequences
that in turn lead to more effects (see Figure 3-20). 2. Identify the background causes of regionalism in
Some of the results of the First World War still affect us Canada during the 1920s.
today. For example, the location of boundaries in the 3. Note the immediate and longer-term effects of
Balkans, and in Middle East countries such as Iraq, closer relations between Canada and the United
established by the treaties of 1919, are still a source of States in the 1920s.
conflict today. Historians (and geographers) use
4. Record the effects of discrimination on one or
cause-effect-results organizers to explain change.
People often have different perspectives and more of the following groups during the 1920s:
world views. Few people will understand events in Aboriginal peoples, African Canadians, or immi-
exactly the same way. They will explain the causes, grants.

Causes Effect Results

New technologies
Trench
warfare Industrialized war
Imperialism
killing millions
Militarism Growing autonomy
First
World Canadians
Growth of industries
Allia nces War on the
battlefield Conscription Crisis
Nationalism
War Measures Act

Assassination Treaty of Versailles

of Archduke Paris Peace
FIGURE 3-20
Ferdinand Conference War Guilt Clause
Cause-effect-results
organizer for the International debt
First World War

82 Unit I Canada in Transition: A Nation Emerges

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The Imperial Conference and the Balfour Report KEY TERMS
Imperial Conference a meeting of the
It was at the Imperial Conference of 1926 that Canada made the greatest leaders of the countries in the British
progress toward changing its legal dependence on Britain. At this confer- Empire
ence, the dominions of the British Empire (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Balfour Report the conclusions of the
South Africa, and the Irish Free State) requested formal recognition of their 1926 Imperial Conference that acknowl-
edged that Canada was an autonomous
autonomy, the freedom to govern themselves. A special committee under the
community within the British Empire
leadership of Lord Balfour, a respected British politician, examined the
request. The committee's findings, published as the Balfour Report, sup- Statute of Westminster the law that
changed the British Empire into the British
ported the dominions' position: Commonwealth; all commonwealth
countries to be considered equal in status
with Britain and able to make their own
... [We] refer to the group of self-governing communities composed of .. laws
Britain and the Dominions. Their position and mutual relation may be British Commonwealth an association of
readily defined. They are autonomous communities within the British nations that were formerly colonies of the
British Empire
Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any
aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common amending formula the process by which
changes can legally be made to the
allegiance to the Crown .... Canadian Constitution
-Summary of Proceedings at the Imperial Conference, 1926

The Statute of Westminster

The recommendations of the Balfour Report became law in 1931, when the
Statute of Westminster was passed by the British government. This statute
formally turned the British Empire into the British Commonwealth. The
commonwealth countries were considered free and equal states that shared
an allegiance to the British Crown. Canada was now a country equal in sta-
tus with Britain and could make its own laws. There were, however, two
remaining restrictions on Canada's independence. Canada's constitution,
the British North America Act (BNA Act), remained in Britain because the
Canadian federal and provincial governments could not agree on an
amending formula, the procedure for changing the Act. As well, the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council, a court of final appeal for Canadians,
resided in Britain until1949.

-
PRACTICE QUESTIONS --

1. What was the significance of each of the following 4. Patterns and Change Review the Fast Forward .
for Canada: Chanak Crisis, Halibut Treaty, Statute Which elements of the King-Byng Crisis and
of Westminster? Harper's prorogation of Parliament are the same?
2. How was King able to turn an election defeat in What is the key difference between the two
1925 into an election victory? events?

3. Explain the challenges faced by minority 5. What restrictions to Canadian autonomy

governments. remained after the Statute of Westminster was
passed?

Chapter 3 Canada in the 1920s 83

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 - -- --
.•.
..."'
Perspectives
counter points
How does the United States
influence Canadian identity?

Was Canada more or less independent

by the end of the 1920s?
While Canada gained greater political independence A Separate Identity
from Britain in the 1920s, it developed much closer Had the U.S. simply replaced Britain in controlling
economic and cultural ties to the United States. In Canada's development? On the one hand, Canada's econ-
1922, U.S. investment in Canada topped that of omy was very dependent on that of the U.S. Canada was
Britain's investment for the first time. By 1930, 61 per- also awash in American popular culture. But it is hard to
cent of foreign investment in Canada was from the U.S. say how much the exposure to American entertainment
During the same period, close to a million Canadians diminished Canadian identity in the 1920s. For example,
moved to the U.S. in search of better jobs and higher the people of Quebec remained relatively untouched by
pay. the influence of American culture in Canada. A different
Despite a growing cultural industry in Canada, most language and a protective church helped to ensure that
Canadians listened to American radio stations, watched most French Canadians remained beyond American influ-
Hollywood films, and drove American-designed Model T ence.
Fords. Even Canadian sports teams were being bought On the other hand, concern about American cultural
up by U.S. interests. The National Hockey League and economic domination made Canadians determined
became Americanized as smaller Canadian cities were to protect their identity. A Royal Commission in 1928 rec-
unable to compete following the inclusion of U.S. teams. ommended that the government regulate private radio to
One historian described the close ties between ensure Canadian content. Although Canadians benefited
Canada and the United States in the 1920s: from having a larger, more prosperous neighbour to the
... in the immediate aftermath of the war, the south, they never showed interest in becoming part of the
United States had a... depression and Canada U.S. J.A. Stephenson, a British correspondent in Canada
had a... depression too. Coal strikes broke out in during the 1920s, observed:
the United States; coal strikes broke out in
The people of Canada are imbued with ... a pas-
Canada. The United States embarked on
sion to maintain their own separate identity. They
Prohibition; so ... did almost all the provinces of
cherish the rooted belief that they enjoy in their
Canada. The United States spawned the
existing political and social order certain mani-
Prohibition gangster; Canada spawned the
fest advantages over their neighbours.
Prohibition rum-runner to keep him supplied.
-Quoted in Contemporary Review, October 1931
-Ralph Allen, Ordeal By Fire: Canada, 1910-1945

Year Britain% U.S.% Other% Analyzing the Issue

1910 77 19 4
1. In Vancouver in 1923, U.S. President Warren Harding
1918 60 36 4
made the following statement about the interdepend-
1920 53 44 3 ence of Canada and the U.S: "We think the same
1922 47 50 3 thoughts, live the same lives, and cherish the same
1925 41 56 3 aspirations .... " Do you think many Canadians would
1926 44 53 3 have agreed with Harding? Why or why not?
1930 36 61 3 2. Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper, explaining
Figure 3-21 Percent of foreign investment in Canada why you agree or disagree with President Harding's
Interpreting the Table In what year did U.S. investment in statement. Give examples of Canada's dependence or
Canada overtake that of Britain? What are some reasons that independence to support your argument.
might account for this change?

84 Unit 1 Canada in Transition: A Nation Emerges

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 KEY TERM
The Stock Market Crash
Depression a severe economic downturn
In the latter half of the 1920s, the North American economy was booming. in the global economy in the 1930s
In 1929, the president of the Vancouver Board of Trade, Robert McKee,
reflected a sense of optimism in the financial community when he told a
business audience that "prosperity was so broad, so sound, [and] so hope-
ful" that it inspired confidence in the future.
However, as you will see in the next chapter, the prosperity soon came
crashing to an end. On Tuesday, October 29, 1929, the New York Stock
Exchange collapsed. On that day, prices of all stocks fell dramatically. The
order to traders was to "Sell, sell, sell!" More than 16 million shares changed
hands, but prices continued to fall. Everyone knew a disaster had occurred.
As you will read in the next chapter, the stock market crash marked a shift
from the prosperity of the 1920s to the crushing poverty of the Depression
of the 1930s.

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FIGURE 3-22 Front page of Toronto's The Globe just days before the stock market crash
Using Evidence How does this front page show the different opinions on the state of the stock
market prior to the crash? What words express concern? Confidence?

Chapter 3 Canada in the 1920s 85

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CHAPTER
Review

CHAPTER FOCUS QUESTION How did Canada adjust to political, social, and economic changes
following the First World War?

Canadians in the 1920s began to develop a distinct sense of identity from

Britain. Events and developments following the First World War at times
encouraged and at other times hindered this trend.

1. a) Complete the organizer below, gathering exam- c) How many of the examples affect your sense of
ples of events from the chapter that helped in the identity as a Canadian today? Explain.
growth of a Canadian identity and examples of
d) Pretend you are in a foreign country and are mis-
events that worked against developing an identity.
taken for an American by someone you meet.
b) Which of the examples do you think had the How would you explain the difference? What
greatest impact on the growing sense of makes us Canadian?
Canadian identity? Which examples most
hindered the growth of a Canadian identity?
Give reasons for your choices.

Events helping to promote a Canadian identity

Events hindering the growth of a Canadian identity

Vocabulary Focus Knowledge and Understanding

2. Review the Key Terms listed on page 61. Create 3. Continue the annotated timeline begun in Chapter 2
a three-column organizer for the key terms in this showing steps to Canadian autonomy. Review the
chapter using the following headings: social; events that are covered in the chapter. Write the
political; and economic. name and date of each event on the timeline and
explain how the event contributed to Canadian
Place each term into the category you think is
independence.
correct. If a term fits in more than one category,
place it in all columns you think are appropriate. 4. List the advantages and disadvantages of foreign
Make a note about the terms you are having investment and branch plants in Canada. Use your
difficulty understanding and review them. list to determine whether the positive impacts of for-
eign investment outweigh the negative impacts.

86 Unit 1 Canada in Transition: A Nation Emerges

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5. Discuss why the 1920s are described as the 10. Rank the following from most to least important for
"Roaring Twenties." Do you agree with this name? their impact on Canada's independence. Provide
Explain your answer. If you do not agree, decide on information to support your ranking.
another name.
Chanak Crisis
6. What do the immigration policy, Aboriginal policy, Halibut Treaty
and treatment of African Canadians reveal about the King-Byng Crisis
attitudes and values of Canadian authorities in the Imperial Conference
1920s? Balfour Report
Statute of Westminster
7. What current political parties offer a change from
traditional parties? How effective are these alterna- 11. Debate: Prime Minister Mackenzie King did more for
tive parties at influencing government policy? Canadian autonomy than any other Canadian prime
minister.
8. What was the long-term impact of the King-Byng
Crisis?
Document Analysis
Critical Thinking 12. What point is the cartoon below making about
Canadian identity? WASP stands for White Anglo-
9. Compare the struggle of women and Aboriginal peo-
Saxon Protestants and refers to Canadians of British
ples during the 1920s. In your opinion, which group
descent. United Empire Loyalists fought for Britain
was more successful in the short term and long
during the American Revolution and, after the war,
term? Provide specific evidence to support your
settled in what is now Canada.
opinion.

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Chapter 3 Canada in the 1920s 87

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